中国成人社区获得性肺炎诊断和治疗指南(2016年版)
中华结核和呼吸杂志, 2016,39(4) : 253-279. DOI: 10.3760/cma.j.issn.1001-0939.2016.04.005

本指南的适用范围:年龄18周岁及以上非免疫缺陷的社区获得性肺炎(community-acquired pneumonia, CAP)患者。

以下临床情况,本指南仅作参考,包括人免疫缺陷病毒(HIV)感染、粒细胞缺乏、血液系统肿瘤及实体肿瘤放化疗、器官移植、接受糖皮质激素及细胞因子拮抗剂治疗者罹患的肺炎。

本指南的修订方法:本指南由中华医学会呼吸病学分会感染学组牵头修订。经过3次现场工作会议和2次网络视频会议,确定了指南的整体框架和主要更新内容,并由方法学专家对所有参加指南编写的专家进行文献检索和证据等级评价的规范化培训。证据等级和推荐等级参照美国感染病学会/美国胸科学会2007年CAP指南[1]。证据等级是对研究证据质量的评价,推荐等级是对一项干预措施利大于弊的确定程度的评价。一般来讲,证据等级越高,推荐等级也越高,但证据等级和推荐等级并不完全对应,还需要权衡患者意愿、价值观和资源消耗作出判断(表1)。

点击查看表格
表1

证据等级和推荐等级

表1

证据等级和推荐等级

证据等级与推荐等级 说明
证据等级  
  等级Ⅰ(高等级) 高质量的随机对照临床研究(RCT)、权威指南以及高质量系统综述和荟萃分析
  等级Ⅱ(中等级) 有一定研究局限性的RCT研究(如无隐蔽分组、未设盲、未报告失访)、队列研究、病例系列研究及病例对照研究
  等级Ⅲ(低等级) 病例报道、专家意见及无临床资料的抗菌药物体外药敏研究
推荐等级  
  A(强推荐) 该方案绝大多数患者、医生和政策制定者都会采纳
  B(中度推荐) 该方案多数人会采纳,但仍有部分人不采纳,要结合患者具体情况作出体现其价值观和意愿的决定
  C(弱推荐) 证据不足,需要患者、医生和政策制定者共同讨论决定

指南内容分为8个部分,由核心成员带领8个小组,以统一标准查阅国内外文献、评价证据等级并完成初稿。推荐等级由指南全体编写成员投票决定。

初稿完成后,总执笔人负责汇总并修改,先后召开6次现场工作会议讨论修订稿,并先后3次征求中华医学会呼吸病学分会其他学组以及感染病学、临床微生物学、急诊医学、重症医学、临床药学等相关学科专家和美国、欧洲专家意见,根据讨论及反馈意见6次修改指南修订稿。

最终修改稿得到了全体执笔专家和咨询专家的同意。

第一部分 CAP的定义和诊断
一、定义

CAP是指在医院外罹患的感染性肺实质(含肺泡壁,即广义上的肺间质)炎症,包括具有明确潜伏期的病原体感染在入院后于潜伏期内发病的肺炎。

二、成人CAP的发病率及病死率

欧洲及北美国家成人CAP的发病率为5~11·1 000人-1·年-1[2],随着年龄增加而逐渐升高。美国成人住院CAP的发病率平均为2.5·1 000人-1·年-1,65~79岁为6.3·1 000人-1·年-1,年龄≥80岁发病率最高,达16.4·1 000人-1·年-1[3]。日本的研究结果显示:15~64、65~74及≥75岁CAP的发病率分别为3.4·1 000人-1·年-1、10.7·1 000人-1·年-1和42.9·1 000人-1·年-1[4]。我国目前仅有CAP年龄构成比的研究,尚无成人CAP的发病率数据,2013年一项国内研究结果显示,16 585例住院的CAP患者中≤5岁(37.3%)及>65岁(28.7%)人群的构成比远高于26~45岁青壮年(9.2%)[5]。

CAP的病死率随患者年龄增加而升高。日本报道15~44、45~64、65~74岁和≥75岁住院CAP患者的病死率分别为1.4%、3.3%、6.9%和9.3%[6]。CAP的病死率亦与患者病情严重程度相关。德国CAP监测网数据显示,成人CAP患者的30 d病死率为8.6%,门诊及住院患者的病死率分别为0.8%和12.2%[7]。而多项研究结果表明,ICU中重症CAP患者的30 d病死率达23%~47%[8,9,10,11]。

目前,我国缺少CAP年发病率和病死率的数据。据2013年中国卫生统计年鉴记载:2008年我国肺炎2周的患病率为1.1‰,较2003年(0.9‰)有所上升。2012年我国肺炎的死亡率平均为17.46/10万,1岁以下人群的死亡率为32.07/10万,25~39岁人群的死亡率<1/10万,65~69岁人群的死亡率为23.55/10万,>85岁人群的死亡率高达864.17/10万[12]。

三、成人CAP病原学特点

CAP致病原的组成和耐药特性在不同国家、地区之间存在着明显差异,且随时间的推移而发生变迁。目前国内多项成人CAP流行病学调查结果显示:肺炎支原体和肺炎链球菌是我国成人CAP的重要致病原[13,14,15,16,17]。其他常见病原体包括流感嗜血杆菌、肺炎衣原体、肺炎克雷伯菌及金黄色葡萄球菌;但铜绿假单胞菌、鲍曼不动杆菌少见[13,16,17,18]。我国社区获得性耐甲氧西林金黄色葡萄球菌(CA-MRSA)肺炎仅有儿童及青少年的少量病例报道[19,20,21,22]。2009—2010年进行的中国成人社区获得性呼吸道感染病原菌耐药性监测未发现CA-MRSA[23]。对于特殊人群如高龄或存在基础疾病的患者(如充血性心力衰竭、心脑血管疾病、慢性呼吸系统疾病、肾功能衰竭、糖尿病等),肺炎克雷伯菌及大肠埃希菌等革兰阴性菌则更加常见[18,24,25]。

随着病毒检测技术的发展与应用,呼吸道病毒在我国成人CAP病原学中的地位逐渐受到重视。近期发表的几项多中心研究结果显示,我国成人CAP患者中病毒检出率为15.0%~34.9%,流感病毒占首位,其他病毒包括副流感病毒、鼻病毒、腺病毒、人偏肺病毒及呼吸道合胞病毒等。病毒检测阳性患者中5.8%~65.7%可合并细菌或非典型病原体感染[15,18,26,27]。

主要病原体耐药方面,我国成人CAP患者中肺炎链球菌对大环内酯类药物的高耐药率是有别于欧美国家的重要特点。2003—2005年2项全国多中心成人CAP调查结果显示:我国肺炎链球菌对大环内酯类药物的耐药率为63.2%~75.4%[13,17]。近期我国2项城市三级医院多中心成人社区获得性呼吸道感染病原菌耐药性监测(CARTIPS)结果表明,肺炎链球菌对阿奇霉素的耐药率高达88.1%~91.3%(最低抑菌浓度MIC90为32~256 mg/L),对克拉霉素耐药率达88.2%[23,28]。而欧美国家肺炎链球菌对红霉素和阿奇霉素的耐药率分别为12.9%~39%和4.3%~33.3%[29,30,31,32,33,34]。另外,我国肺炎链球菌对口服青霉素的耐药率达24.5%~36.5%,对二代头孢菌素的耐药率为39.9%~50.7%,但对注射用青霉素和三代头孢菌素的耐药率较低(分别为1.9%和13.4%)[23,28]。

肺炎支原体对大环内酯类药物的高耐药率是我国CAP病原学有别于其他多数国家的另一特点。研究结果显示,我国成人CAP患者中分离出的支原体对红霉素的耐药率达58.9%~71.7%,对阿奇霉素的耐药率为54.9%~60.4%[35,36,37],而耐药支原体感染可使患者发热时间及抗感染疗程延长[36]。除我国外,日本成人和青少年CAP支原体对大环内酯类药物的耐药率可达25%~46%,法国、加拿大、美国、西班牙及德国亦有肺炎支原体对大环内酯类药物耐药的报道[38,39,40,41,42,43]。虽然我国肺炎支原体对大环内酯类药物耐药率高,但仍对多西环素或米诺环素、喹诺酮类抗菌药物敏感[35,44]。

四、CAP的临床诊断标准

1.社区发病。

2.肺炎相关临床表现:(1)新近出现的咳嗽、咳痰或原有呼吸道疾病症状加重,伴或不伴脓痰、胸痛、呼吸困难及咯血;(2)发热;(3)肺实变体征和(或)闻及湿性啰音;(4)外周血白细胞>10×109/L或<4×109/L,伴或不伴细胞核左移。

3.胸部影像学检查显示新出现的斑片状浸润影、叶或段实变影、磨玻璃影或间质性改变,伴或不伴胸腔积液。

符合1、3及2中任何1项,并除外肺结核、肺部肿瘤、非感染性肺间质性疾病、肺水肿、肺不张、肺栓塞、肺嗜酸粒细胞浸润症及肺血管炎等后,可建立临床诊断。

五、CAP的诊治思路

第1步:判断CAP诊断是否成立。对于临床疑似CAP患者,要注意与肺结核等特殊感染以及非感染病因进行鉴别。

第2步:评估CAP病情的严重程度,选择治疗场所。

第3步:推测CAP可能的病原体及耐药风险(表2):参考年龄、发病季节、基础病和危险因素、症状或体征、胸部影像学(X线胸片或CT)特点、实验室检查、CAP病情严重程度、既往抗菌药物应用史等。

点击查看表格
表2

不同类型病原体肺炎的临床表现

表2

不同类型病原体肺炎的临床表现

可能病原体 临床特征
细菌 急性起病,高热,可伴有寒战,脓痰、褐色痰或血痰,胸痛,外周血白细胞明显升高,C反应蛋白(CRP)升高,肺部实变体征或湿性啰音,影像学可表现为肺泡浸润或实变呈叶段分布[45,46,47,48,49]
支原体、衣原体 年龄<60岁,基础病少,持续咳嗽,无痰或痰涂片检查未发现细菌,肺部体征少,外周血白细胞<10×109/L,影像学可表现为上肺野和双肺病灶、小叶中心性结节、树芽征、磨玻璃影以及支气管壁增厚,病情进展可呈实变[15,46,50,51,52]
病毒 多数具有季节性,可有流行病学接触史或群聚性发病,急性上呼吸道症状,肌痛,外周血白细胞正常或减低,降钙素原(PCT)<0.1 μg/L,抗菌药物治疗无效,影像学表现为双侧、多叶间质性渗出,磨玻璃影,可伴有实变[46,53,54,55]

第4步:合理安排病原学检查,及时启动经验性抗感染治疗。

第5步:动态评估CAP经验性抗感染效果,初始治疗失败时查找原因,并及时调整治疗方案。

第6步:治疗后随访,并进行健康宣教。

第二部分 CAP病情严重程度评价、住院标准及重症CAP诊断标准

CAP病情严重程度评估,对于选择适当的治疗场所、经验性抗感染药物和辅助支持治疗至关重要。

一、CAP病情严重程度评估

CAP严重程度的评分系统各具特点(表3),可作为辅助评价工具,为临床诊治提供帮助,但医生应结合临床经验作出判断,动态观察病情变化[60](ⅡA)。CURB-65、CRB-65(C:意识障碍,U:尿素氮,R:呼吸频率,B:血压,65:年龄)和肺炎严重指数(Pneumonia Severity lndex, PSI)评分低估流感病毒肺炎的死亡风险和严重程度[61,62,63,64],而氧合指数结合外周血淋巴细胞绝对值减低预测流感病毒肺炎死亡风险优于CURB-65和PSI[65](ⅡB)。

点击查看表格
表3

常用的CAP严重程度评分系统及其特点

表3

常用的CAP严重程度评分系统及其特点

评分系统 预测指标和计算方法 风险评分 推荐
CURB-65评分[56] 共5项指标,满足1项得1分:(1)意识障碍;(2)尿素氮>7 mmol/L;(3)呼吸频率≥30次/min;(4)收缩压<90 mmHg或舒张压≤60 mmHg;(5)年龄≥65岁 评估死亡风险0~1分:低危;2分:中危;3~5分:高危 简洁,敏感度高,易于临床操作
CRB-65评分[56] 共4项指标,满足1项得1分:(1)意识障碍;(2)呼吸频率≥30次/min;(3)收缩压<90 mmHg或舒张压≤60 mmHg;(4)年龄≥65岁 评估死亡风险,0分:低危,门诊治疗;1~2分:中危,建议住院或严格随访下院外治疗;≥3分:高危,应住院治疗 适用于不方便进行生化检测的医疗机构
PSI评分[57] 年龄(女性-10分)加所有危险因素得分总和:(1)居住在养老院(+10分);(2)基础疾病:肿瘤(+30分);肝病(+20分);充血性心力衰竭(+10分);脑血管疾病(+10分);肾病(+10分);(3)体征:意识状态改变(+20分);呼吸频率≥30次/min(+20分);收缩压<90 mmHg(+20分);体温<35 ℃或≥40 ℃(+15分);脉搏≥125次/min(+10分);(4)实验室检查:动脉血pH值<7.35(+30分);血尿素氮≥11 mmol/L(+20分);血钠<130 mmol/L(+20分);血糖≥14 mmol/L(+10分);红细胞压积(Hct)<30%(+10分);PaO2<60 mmHg(或指氧饱和度<90%)(+10分);(5)胸部影像:胸腔积液(+10分) 评估死亡风险低危:Ⅰ级(<50岁,无基础疾病);Ⅱ级(≤70分);Ⅲ级(71~90分);中危:Ⅳ级(91~130分);高危:Ⅴ级(>130分);Ⅳ和Ⅴ级需要住院治疗 判断患者是否需要住院的敏感指标,且特异性高,评分系统复杂
CURXO评分[58] 主要指标:(1)动脉血pH值<7.30 ;(2)收缩压<90 mmHg次要指标:(1)呼吸频率>30次/min;(2)意识障碍;(3)血尿素氮>30 mg/L;(4)PaO2<54 mmHg或氧合指数<250 mmHg;(5)年龄≥80岁;(6) X线胸片示多叶或双侧肺受累 符合1项主要指标或2项以上次要指标为重症CAP 用于预测急诊重症CAP的简单评分方法
SMART-COP评分[59] 下列所有危险因素得分总和:收缩压<90 mmHg(+2分);X线胸片多肺叶受累(+1分);血清白蛋白<35 g/L(+1分);呼吸频率≥30次/min(>50岁)或≥25次/min(≤50岁)(+1分);心率≥125次/min(+1分)。新发的意识障碍(+1分);低氧血症(+2分):PaO2<70 mmHg或指氧饱和度≤93%或氧合指数<333 mmHg (≤50岁);PaO2<60 mmHg或指氧饱和度≤90%或氧合指数<250 mmHg(>50岁);动脉血pH值<7.35(+2分) 0~2分:低风险3~4分:中度风险5~6分:高风险7~8分:极高风险 >3分提示有需要呼吸监护或循环支持治疗的可能性

注:1 mmHg=0.133 kPa

二、CAP住院标准

建议使用CURB-65评分作为判断CAP患者是否需要住院治疗的标准,评分0~1分:原则上门诊治疗即可;2分:建议住院或在严格随访下的院外治疗;3~5分:应住院治疗(ⅠA)。但任何评分系统都应结合患者年龄、基础疾病、社会经济状况、胃肠功能及治疗依从性等综合判断[66](ⅡB)。

三、重症CAP的诊断标准

重症CAP的诊断标准[67]:符合下列1项主要标准或≥3项次要标准者可诊断为重症肺炎,需密切观察,积极救治,有条件时收住ICU治疗(ⅡA)。主要标准:(1)需要气管插管行机械通气治疗;(2)脓毒症休克经积极液体复苏后仍需要血管活性药物治疗。次要标准:(1)呼吸频率≥30次/min;(2)氧合指数≤250 mmHg(1 mmHg=0.133 kPa);(3)多肺叶浸润;(4)意识障碍和(或)定向障碍;(5)血尿素氮≥7.14 mmol/L;(6)收缩压<90 mmHg需要积极的液体复苏。

第三部分 CAP病原学诊断
一、 CAP病原学诊断方法选择

1.除群聚性发病或初始经验性治疗无效外,在门诊接受治疗的轻症CAP患者不必常规进行病原学检查[1,2,68,69,70](ⅢB)。

2.住院CAP患者(包括需要急诊留观的患者)通常需要进行病原学检查,病原学检查项目的选择应综合考虑患者的年龄、基础疾病、免疫状态、临床特点、病情严重程度以及先期的抗感染治疗情况等。当经验性抗感染疗效不佳需要进行调整时,合理的病原学检查尤为重要[1,2,68](ⅠA)。

3.CAP特定临床情况下病原学检查项目的建议参见表4。

点击查看表格
表4

CAP特定临床情况下建议进行的病原学检查

表4

CAP特定临床情况下建议进行的病原学检查

临床情况 痰涂片及培养a 血培养b 胸腔积液培养 支原体/衣原体/军团菌筛查c 呼吸道病毒筛查d LP1尿抗原e SP尿抗原f 真菌抗原 结核筛查g
群聚性发病[2]       √ √ √      
初始经验性治疗无效[1] √ √   √ √ √ √    
重症CAP[1,2,68] √ √   √ √ √ √    
特殊影像学表现[1,2,52,71,72,73,74,75,76]                  
  坏死性肺炎或合并空洞 √i √           √ √
  合并胸腔积液 √ √ √ √   √ √   √
  双肺多叶病灶 √ √   √ √ √     √
基础疾病                  
  合并慢阻肺[1,2,24,25,77] √                
  合并结构性肺疾病[1,25] √               √
  免疫缺陷h[78,79,80] √ √   √ √ √ √ √ √
发病前2周内外出旅行史j[1,2]           √      

注:a可采用的标本除痰外,还包括气管内吸出物(endotracheal aspiration,ETA)、支气管肺泡灌洗液(bronchoalveolar lavage fluid,BALF)、防污染毛刷(protected specimen brush,PSB)等下呼吸道标本及组织活检标本;b血培养应包括需氧菌培养和厌氧菌培养;c支原体、衣原体和军团菌筛查项目为核酸及血清特异性抗体;d筛查项目为呼吸道病毒核酸、抗原或血清特异性抗体;e LP1:嗜肺军团菌1型;f SP:肺炎链球菌;g结核筛查首选痰涂片查抗酸杆菌,有条件者可进行痰分枝杆菌培养及核酸检测;h免疫缺陷患者除应比较全面地进行表3中所列的各项病原学检查外,还应进行人肺孢子菌、巨细胞病毒、非结核分枝杆菌等机会性感染的筛查;i涂片检查应包括涂片查细菌、真菌,痰培养应同时进行细菌和真菌培养;j有特殊疫区旅行史时还应进行相应的呼吸道传染病筛查

4.侵入性病原学标本采集技术仅选择性适用于以下患者:(1)肺炎合并胸腔积液,尤其是与肺部感染病灶同侧的胸腔积液,可通过胸腔穿刺抽液行胸腔积液病原学检查;(2)接受机械通气治疗的患者,可经支气管镜留取下呼吸道标本[包括气管内吸出物(ETA)、BALF、防污染毛刷(PSB)等]进行病原学检查;(3)经验性治疗无效、怀疑特殊病原体感染的CAP患者,采用常规方法获得的呼吸道标本无法明确致病原时,可经支气管镜留取下呼吸道标本(包括ETA、BALF、PSB等)或通过经皮肺穿刺活检留取肺组织标本进行病原学检查;(4)积极抗感染治疗后病情无好转,需要与非感染性肺部病变(如肿瘤、血管炎、间质病等)鉴别诊断者(ⅢB)。

二、CAP致病原的主要检测方法及其诊断意义

CAP致病原的主要检测方法及其相应的诊断标准见表5。

点击查看表格
表5

CAP致病原的主要检测方法及其诊断意义

表5

CAP致病原的主要检测方法及其诊断意义

致病原 检测方法 采用标本 诊断意义 说明
需氧菌和兼性厌氧菌        
  直接涂片镜检(革兰染色) 痰、ETA、BALF、PSB标本、血液、胸腔积液、支气管黏膜活检标本、肺活检标本 1.可作为病原学确定诊断依据的检测结果:(1)血或其他无菌标本(如胸腔积液、肺活检标本等)培养到病原菌[81];(2)合格下呼吸道标本分离到土拉热弗朗西斯菌、鼠疫耶尔森菌、炭疽芽胞杆菌;(3)肺炎链球菌尿抗原检测(ICT法)阳性(儿童患者除外)[81,82,83]   合格下呼吸道标本中,痰标本需满足:鳞状上皮细胞<10个/低倍视野,多核白细胞>25个/低倍视野,或二者比例<1∶2.5[84]
  常规培养 新鲜尿液 2.对病原学诊断有重要参考意义的检测结果:(1)合格下呼吸道标本培养优势菌重度生长(≥+++)(正常定植菌群除外);(2)合格下呼吸道标本细菌少量生长,但与涂片镜检结果一致(肺炎链球菌、流感嗜血杆菌、卡他莫拉菌);(3)合格下呼吸道标本涂片镜检时可见明显的中性粒细胞吞噬细菌现象
  肺炎链球菌尿抗原(ICT)
厌氧菌        
  直接涂片镜检(革兰染色) 血、胸腔积液 可作为病原学确定诊断依据的检测结果:血、胸腔积液培养到病原菌  
  厌氧培养      
分枝杆菌        
  涂片镜检(萋-尼染色镜检、荧光染色镜检) 痰、ETA、BALF、PSB标本、胸腔积液、支气管黏膜活检标本、肺活检标本 1.可作为病原学确定诊断依据的检测结果:(1)涂片镜检发现抗酸杆菌,但不能鉴别结核分枝杆菌(MTB)与非结核分枝杆菌[85,86];(2)分枝杆菌培养阳性,可鉴别结核分枝杆菌与非结核分枝杆菌[85,86] 1.荧光涂片镜检敏感度高于萋-尼染色[85,86]
  分枝杆菌培养 2.对病原学诊断有重要参考意义的检测结果:分枝杆菌核酸检测阳性,可鉴别结核分枝杆菌与非结核分枝杆菌[85,87] 2.分枝杆菌培养的敏感性优于涂片镜检,可进行体外药敏试验,但耗时较长、操作较复杂,对实验室有较高生物安全要求[85,86]
  核酸检测(建议同时送检分支杆菌培养) 3.Xpert MTB/RIF是WHO推荐的分枝杆菌核酸检测方法,可同时提供利福平的耐药信息[85,87]。目前商用试剂盒已获中国食品药品监管总局(CFDA)批准上市
  γ-干扰素释放试验(IGRAs) 全血标本 4.IGRAs阳性提示宿主已被结核分枝杆菌抗原致敏,TST阳性提示曾感染MTB,WHO均不建议用于活动性结核的诊断[85,88,89]
  结核菌素皮肤试验(TST) —
军团菌属        
  血清特异性抗体检测(IFA、ELISA) 急性期及恢复期双份血清 1.可作为病原学确定诊断依据的检测结果:(1)合格下呼吸道标本、胸腔积液、支气管黏膜活检标本或肺活检标本分离培养到军团菌[81,90,91,92,93,94];(2)嗜肺军团菌1型尿抗原检测(ICT法)阳性[90,91,92,93,94];(3)急性期和恢复期双份血清嗜肺军团菌1型特异性抗体(IFA法或ELISA法)滴度呈4倍或4倍以上变化[90,91,92,93,94] 1.军团菌培养阳性是诊断军团菌感染的金标准,但阳性率低,先期的抗感染药物使用可能造成假阴性[90],采用BALF和肺活检标本可提高阳性率
  嗜肺军团菌1型尿抗原检测(ICT) 尿液 2.对病原学诊断具有重要参考意义的检测结果:(1)单份血清嗜肺军团菌1型特异性抗体滴度达到阳性标准[90,91,92,93,94];(2)除嗜肺军团菌1型之外的其他嗜肺军团菌血清型或其他军团菌属双份血清特异性抗体滴度4倍或4倍以上增高[90,91,92,93,94];(3)合格下呼吸道标本、胸腔积液、支气管黏膜活检标本或肺活检标本嗜肺军团菌抗原检测阳性(DFA法)[90,91,92,93,94];(4)合格下呼吸道标本、胸腔积液、支气管黏膜活检标本或肺活检标本军团菌属核酸检测阳性[90,91,92,93,94,95] 2.嗜肺军团菌1型尿抗原检测可用于早期快速诊断,结果不受先期抗感染治疗影响[90,96]
  核酸检测 痰、ETA、BALF、PSB标本、胸腔积液、支气管黏膜活检标本、肺活检标本 3.合格下呼吸道标本军团菌抗原检测虽然具有快速、简便、可进行属种鉴定、可区分亚型等优点,但敏感度、特异度较差[90,91,92,93,94]
  分离培养(BCYE营养培养基、GVPC及MWY筛选培养基) 4.军团菌属核酸检测可用于军团菌肺炎的早期诊断,敏感度较高,可检测嗜肺军团菌各亚型[90],但目前尚未被美国、欧洲认可为确诊标准[91,92,93,94]
  下呼吸道标本抗原检测(DFA)
肺炎支原体        
  血清特异性抗体检测(CF、PA、MAG、EIA、IFA) 急性期及恢复期双份血清 1.可作为病原学确定诊断依据的检测结果:(1)口咽或鼻咽拭子、合格下呼吸道标本、胸腔积液、支气管黏膜活检或肺活检标本分离培养到肺炎支原体[81,97];(2)急性期和恢复期双份血清肺炎支原体特异性抗体滴度呈4倍或4倍以上变化[81,97] 1.肺炎支原体培养阳性可以确诊,但耗时长、阳性率偏低[98];
  核酸检测 口咽拭子、鼻咽拭子、痰、ETA、BALF、PSB标本、胸腔积液、支气管黏膜活检标本、肺活检标本 2.对病原学诊断具有重要参考意义的检测结果:(1)口咽或鼻咽拭子、合格下呼吸道标本、胸腔积液、支气管黏膜活检或肺活检标本肺炎支原体核酸检测阳性[81,95];(2)单份血清肺炎支原体特异性IgM抗体阳性[97] 2.CF法和PA法测定的血清特异性抗体滴度受IgG的影响较大,早期诊断价值有限。MAG法、EIA法或IFA法可测定血清特异性IgM或IgG。血清特异性IgM出现较早,但阴性不能排除急性感染。双份血清特异性抗体4倍或以上升高有回顾性诊断意义[98]
  培养(专用培养基) 3.肺炎支原体核酸检测已批准用于临床,可作为早期快速诊断的重要手段[81,95]
致病原 检测方法 采用标本 诊断意义 说明
肺炎衣原体
  血清特异性抗体检测(MIF) 急性期及恢复期双份血清 1.可作为病原学确定诊断依据的检测结果:(1)口咽或鼻咽拭子、合格下呼吸道标本、胸腔积液、支气管黏膜活检或肺活检标本分离培养到肺炎衣原体[81,99,100];(2)急性期和恢复期双份血清肺炎衣原体特异性IgG抗体(MIF法)滴度呈4倍或4倍以上变化[99,100];(3)血清肺炎衣原体特异性IgM(MIF法)≥1∶16[99,100] 1.肺炎衣原体为专性细胞内致病原,必须采用细胞培养技术才能进行体外分离,技术复杂,一般不建议用于临床诊断[99,100]
  核酸检测 口咽拭子、鼻咽拭子、痰、ETA、BALF、PSB标本、胸腔积液、支气管黏膜活检标本、肺活检标本 2.对病原学诊断具有重要参考意义的检测结果:(1)口咽或鼻咽拭子、合格下呼吸道标本、胸腔积液、支气管黏膜活检或肺活检标本肺炎衣原体核酸检测阳性[81,95];(2)单份血清肺炎衣原体特异性IgG抗体滴度(MIF法)≥1∶512[99,100] 2.血清特异性抗体检测对早期诊断意义有限,特异性IgM升高或双份血清特异性IgG抗体呈4倍或4倍以上变化有回顾性诊断意义[99,100]
  分离培养(细胞培养)     3.肺炎衣原体的核酸检测技术已批准用于临床,阳性结果对早期快速诊断有重要参考价值[81,95]
伯氏考克斯体
  核酸检测 咽拭子、鼻拭子、痰、ETA、BALF、PSB标本 1.可作为病原学确定诊断依据的检测结果:(1)口咽或鼻咽拭子、合格下呼吸道标本分离培养到伯氏考克斯体[94];(2)合格下呼吸道标本或肺活检标本中伯氏考克斯体核酸检测阳性[91,94];(3)肺活检标本免疫组化染色发现伯氏考克斯体且伴有相应炎症反应[91,94];(4)急性期和恢复期双份血清伯氏考克斯体Ⅱ相抗原特异性IgG抗体(IFA法)滴度呈4倍或4倍以上变化[91,94] 1.合格下呼吸道标本中分离到伯氏考克斯体或肺组织活检标本经免疫组织化学染色发现伯氏考克斯体均可确诊Q热肺炎[91,94],但敏感度偏低
  血清特异性抗体检测(CF、MAT、IFA、ELISA) 急性期及恢复期双份血清 2.对病原学诊断具有重要参考意义的检测结果:单份血清伯氏考克斯体Ⅱ相抗原特异性IgG≥1∶128(IFA法),或ELISA、dot-ELISA、MAT和CF法检测结果显示单份血清伯氏考克斯体Ⅱ相抗原特异性抗体(IgG、IgM或补体结合抗体)滴度升高[91,94] 2.口咽或鼻咽拭子、合格下呼吸道标本中伯氏考克斯体核酸检测阳性已被美国和欧洲列为Q热肺炎的确诊依据,是早期快速诊断的重要手段[91,94]
  病理组织学检查 肺活检标本   3.血清伯氏考克斯体Ⅱ相抗原特异性IgM抗体检测对早期诊断有一定帮助[91,94]
病毒
  核酸检测 口咽拭子、鼻咽拭子、鼻咽吸引物、气管吸引物、痰等呼吸道标本 1.可作为病原学确定诊断依据的检测结果:(1)口咽或鼻咽拭子、合格下呼吸道标本或肺组织标本中流感病毒、副流感病毒1~4型、呼吸道合胞病毒、腺病毒、冠状病毒、人偏肺病毒等核酸检测阳性[81,95,101,102];(2)急性期和恢复期双份血清流感病毒、呼吸道合胞病毒等呼吸道病毒特异性IgG抗体滴度呈4倍或4倍以上变化[101,102,103];(3)口咽或鼻咽拭子或合格下呼吸道标本中流感病毒快速抗原检测阳性(DFA法或胶体金法),并有相关流行病学史支持[101,102];(4)口咽或鼻咽或合格下呼吸道标本中副流感病毒1~4型、呼吸道合胞病毒、腺病毒、人偏肺病毒的快速抗原检测阳性(DFA法)[81];(5)合格下呼吸道标本中分离到流感病毒、呼吸道合胞病毒等呼吸道病毒 1.病毒分离培养是确诊呼吸道病毒感染的金标准,对新发或突发呼吸道传染病病原的发现和确诊具有重要意义,但需时较长、实验条件要求较高,不是临床检测的常规项目[81,101,102]
  病毒抗原检测(DFA、胶体金法)   2.对病原学诊断具有重要参考意义的检测结果:血清流感病毒、呼吸道合胞病毒等呼吸道病毒特异性IgM阳性[101,102,103] 2.逆转录PCR/时实定量PCR的敏感度和特异度较高,是流感病毒、禽流感病毒等呼吸道病毒感染快速诊断的首选方法[81,95,101,102]
  血清特异性抗体检测(IFA、ELISA、CF、血凝抑制试验) 急性期及恢复期双份血清   3.合格下呼吸道标本的病毒抗原检测可作为早期快速诊断的初筛方法,敏感度低于核酸检测方法,对其结果的解释应结合患者的流行病史和临床症状综合考虑,必要时使用核酸检测或病毒分离培养进一步确认[101,102]
  病毒分离培养 口咽拭子、鼻咽拭子、鼻咽吸引物、气管吸引物、痰液等新鲜呼吸道标本   4.血清特异性病毒抗体检测是回顾性诊断的主要手段[101,102]
真菌
  涂片镜检(革兰染色、KOH浮载剂镜检、Giemsa染色、GMS染色、黏蛋白卡红染色) 痰液、ETA、BALF、PSB标本、支气管黏膜或肺活检标本 1.可作为病原学确定诊断依据的检测结果:(1)血或其他无菌标本(如胸腔积液、肺活检组织标本等)培养到真菌(血培养曲霉阳性应注意除外污染)[81,104];(2)肺组织标本免疫组化染色发现隐球菌、丝状真菌、人肺孢子菌,且伴有相应的炎症反应[104];(3)合格下呼吸道标本涂片镜检发现隐球菌或人肺孢子菌[81,105];(4)合格下呼吸道标本分离培养到新型隐球菌[105,106];(5)血清隐球菌荚膜多糖抗原阳性[107] 1.除常规革兰染色镜检外,黏蛋白卡红染色可用于发现隐球菌,GMS染色可用于发现人肺孢子菌,KOH浮载剂镜检可以发现真菌菌丝和孢子,但无法区别菌种
  真菌培养 痰、ETA、BALF、PSB标本、、胸腔积液、支气管黏膜活检标本、肺活检标本、血液 2.对病原学诊断具有重要参考意义的检测结果:(1)血清或BALF半乳甘露聚糖抗原阳性;(2)血清1-3-β-D葡聚糖抗原阳性,并能排除导致假阳性的各种因素 2.采用无菌技术从通常无菌部位采集的标本培养阳性是诊断的金标准,非无菌标本应注意除外定植或污染
  1-3-β-D葡聚糖抗原 血清   3.血清1-3-β-D葡聚糖抗原检测对除隐球菌和接合菌以外的侵袭性真菌感染的诊断有一定参考价值[105,107,108];血清或BALF半乳甘露聚糖抗原检测对侵袭性曲霉感染的诊断有重要参考价值[105,107,109]
  半乳甘露聚糖抗原 血清、BALF   4.血清隐球菌荚膜多糖抗原检测在非播散性隐球菌感染者中可能存在假阴性,现有研究不支持其用于疗效和预后评估[107]
  隐球菌荚膜多糖抗原(乳胶凝集法,EIA) 血清、脑脊液   5.脑脊液隐球菌荚膜多糖抗原阳性虽然并非诊断肺隐球菌病的直接依据,但对于脑脊液隐球菌荚膜多糖抗原阳性患者,应警惕同时合并肺隐球菌病的可能
致病原 检测方法 采用标本 诊断意义 说明
  病理组织学检查 肺组织活检标本    
寄生虫
  涂片或组织印片镜检 痰或其他下呼吸道标本、胸腔积液、肺组织活检标本 1.可作为确诊依据的检测结果:(1)合格下呼吸道标本涂片镜检发现寄生虫虫体、虫卵、滋养体、包囊或卵囊[81,110];(2)肺组织活检标本经免疫组化染色发现寄生虫虫卵、虫体、滋养体、包囊或卵囊[81,110];(3)血液、脑脊液、合格下呼吸道标本或肺组织标本中刚地弓形虫核酸检测阳性[81,111];合格下呼吸道标本或肺组织标本中比氏微孢子虫、隐孢子虫等核酸检测阳性[81];(4)血液或其他体液中寄生虫循环抗原阳性[110] 1.直接涂片镜检可发现并殖吸虫虫卵、阿米巴原虫滋养体;Giemsa染色可发现刚地弓形虫滋养体或包囊;改良抗酸染色可发现隐孢子虫卵囊;改良三色染色法可发现比氏微孢子虫[81]
  病理组织学检查 肺组织活检标本 2.对病原学诊断具有重要参考意义的检测结果:(1)寄生虫抗原皮内试验阳性[110];(2)特定寄生虫相应的血清特异性抗体(IgG、IgM或IgA)阳性[81,110,111] 2.免疫缺陷患者如怀疑罹患弓形虫病等机会性寄生虫感染,可优先选择核酸检测方法以利于早期快速诊断[112,113,114]
  核酸检测 血液、脑脊液、BALF、支气管黏膜或肺组织活检标本   3.对免疫功能正常者,血清特异性抗体检测是最常用的寄生虫感染初筛试验。但是,由于寄生虫感染后血清特异性抗体持续时间较长,寄生虫抗原皮内试验阳性或血清特异性抗体(IgG、IgM或IgA)阳性并不能确定是急性感染[110,111]
  血清特异性抗体检测(DT、ELISA、IFA、HA、IHA、ISAGA、Western印迹试验) 血清    
  抗原检测(ELISA、ICT) 血液、脑脊液、胸腔积液等    

注:BALF:支气管肺泡灌洗液;BCYE营养培养基:活性炭酵母浸出物(buffered charcoal-yeast extract)营养培养基;CF:补体结合试验;DFA:直接免疫荧光试验;DT:Sabin-Feldman染色试验;ELISA:酶联免疫吸附试验;EIA:酶免疫测定试验;ETA:气管内吸出物;Giemsa染色:吉姆萨染色;GMS染色:Gomori大亚甲基四胺银(GMS)染色;HA:血液凝集试验;GVPC军团菌筛选培养基:甘氨酸-万古霉素-多黏菌素-放线菌酮军团菌筛选培养基;ICT:免疫层析法;IFA:间接免疫荧光试验;IGRAs:γ干扰素释放试验;IHA:间接血凝试验;ISAGA:免疫吸附凝集试验;MAG:微粒凝集试验;MAT:微量凝集试验;MIF:微量免疫荧光分析;MWY军团菌筛选培养基:甘氨酸-万古霉素-多黏菌素B军团菌筛选培养基;PA:颗粒凝集试验;PSB:防污染毛刷;TST:结核菌素皮肤试验

第四部分 CAP抗感染治疗
一、CAP经验性抗感染治疗

在确立CAP临床诊断并安排合理病原学检查及标本采样后,需要根据患者年龄、基础疾病、临床特点、实验室及影像学检查、疾病严重程度、肝肾功能、既往用药和药物敏感性情况分析最有可能的病原并评估耐药风险,选择恰当的抗感染药物和给药方案(表6),及时实施初始经验性抗感染治疗。值得注意的是:我国不同地区病原流行病学分布和抗菌药物耐药率可能不一致,表6中所列的序号为可供选择的初始经验性抗感染药物选择方案,治疗建议仅是原则性的,需结合患者所在地区具体情况进行选择。

点击查看表格
表6

初始经验性抗感染药物的选择

表6

初始经验性抗感染药物的选择

不同人群 常见病原体 抗感染药物选择 备注
门诊治疗(推荐口服给药)      
  无基础疾病青壮年 肺炎链球菌、肺炎支原体、流感嗜血杆菌、肺炎衣原体、流感病毒、腺病毒、卡他莫拉菌 (1)氨基青霉素、青霉素类/酶抑制剂复合物;(2)一代、二代头孢菌素;(3)多西环素或米诺环素;(4)呼吸喹诺酮类;(5)大环内酯类 (1)根据临床特征鉴别细菌性肺炎、支原体或衣原体肺炎和病毒性肺炎;(2)门诊轻症支原体、衣原体和病毒性肺炎多有自限性
  有基础疾病或老年人(年龄≥65岁) 肺炎链球菌、流感嗜血杆菌、肺炎克雷伯菌等肠杆菌科菌、肺炎衣原体、流感病毒、RSV病毒、卡他莫拉菌 (1)青霉素类/酶抑制剂复合物;(2)二代、三代头孢菌素(口服);(3)呼吸喹诺酮类;(4)青霉素类/酶抑制剂复合物、二代头孢菌素、三代头孢菌素联合多西环素、米诺环素或大环内酯类 年龄>65岁、存在基础疾病(慢性心脏、肺、肝、肾疾病及糖尿病、免疫抑制)、酗酒、3个月内接受β-内酰胺类药物治疗是耐药肺炎链球菌感染的危险因素[1],不宜单用多西环素、米诺环素或大环内酯类药物
需入院治疗、但不必收住ICU(可选择静脉或口服给药)      
  无基础疾病青壮年 肺炎链球菌、流感嗜血杆菌、卡他莫拉菌、金黄色葡萄球菌、肺炎支原体、肺炎衣原体、流感病毒、腺病毒、其他呼吸道病毒 (1)青霉素G、氨基青霉素、青霉素类/酶抑制剂复合物;(2)二代、三代头孢菌素、头霉素类、氧头孢烯类;(3)上述药物联合多西环素、米诺环素或大环内酯类;(4)呼吸喹诺酮类;(5)大环内酯类 (1)我国成人CAP致病菌中肺炎链球菌对静脉青霉素耐药率仅1.9%,中介率仅9%左右。青霉素中介肺炎链球菌感染的住院CAP患者仍可以通过提高静脉青霉素剂量达到疗效[23,129];(2)疑似非典型病原体感染首选多西环素、米诺环素或呼吸喹诺酮,在支原体耐药率较低地区可选择大环内酯类
  有基础疾病或老年人(≥65岁) 肺炎链球菌、流感嗜血杆菌、肺炎克雷伯菌等肠杆菌科菌、流感病毒、RSV病毒、卡他莫拉菌、厌氧菌、军团菌 (1)青霉素类/酶抑制剂复合物;(2)三代头孢菌素或其酶抑制剂复合物、头霉素类、氧头孢烯类、厄他培南等碳青霉烯类;(3)上述药物单用或联合大环内酯类;(4)呼吸喹诺酮类 (1)有基础病患者及老年人要考虑肠杆菌科菌感染的可能,并需要进一步评估产ESBL肠杆菌科菌感染的风险;(2)老年人需关注吸入风险因素
需入住ICU(推荐静脉给药)      
  无基础疾病青壮年 肺炎链球菌、金黄色葡萄球菌、流感病毒、腺病毒、军团菌 (1)青霉素类/酶抑制剂复合物、三代头孢菌素、头霉素类、氧头孢烯类、厄他培南联合大环内酯类;(2)呼吸喹诺酮类 (1)肺炎链球菌感染最常见,其他要考虑的病原体包括金黄色葡萄球菌、军团菌属、流感病毒等[1,2,130,131,132,133,134];(2)流感流行季节注意流感病毒感染,考虑联合神经氨酸酶抑制剂,并注意流感继发金黄色葡萄球菌感染[135],必要时联合治疗MRSA肺炎的药物
  有基础疾病或老年人(年龄≥65岁) 肺炎链球菌、军团菌、肺炎克雷伯菌等肠杆菌科菌、金黄色葡萄球菌、厌氧菌、流感病毒、RSV病毒 (1)青霉素类/酶抑制剂复合物、三代头孢菌素或其酶抑制剂的复合物、厄他培南等碳青霉烯类联合大环内酯类;(2)青霉素类/酶抑制剂复合物、三代头孢菌素或其酶抑制剂复合物、厄他培南等碳青霉烯类联合呼吸喹诺酮类 (1)评估产ESBL肠杆菌科细菌感染风险;(2)关注吸入风险因素及相关病原菌的药物覆盖
有铜绿假单胞菌感染危险因素的CAP,需住院或入住ICU(推荐静脉给药) 铜绿假单胞菌,肺炎链球菌、军团菌、肺炎克雷伯菌等肠杆菌科菌、金黄色葡萄球菌、厌氧菌、流感病毒、RSV病毒 (1)具有抗假单胞菌活性的β-内酰胺类;(2)有抗假单胞菌活性的喹诺酮类;(3)具有抗假单胞菌活性的β-内酰胺类联合有抗假单胞菌活性的喹诺酮类或氨基糖苷类;(4)具有抗假单胞菌活性的β-内酰胺类、氨基糖苷类、喹诺酮类三药联合 危险因素包括:(1)气道铜绿假单胞菌定植;(2)因慢性气道疾病反复使用抗菌药物或糖皮质激素。重症患者或明确耐药患者推荐联合用药

注:一代头孢菌素:头孢唑林、头孢拉啶、头孢氨苄、头孢硫脒等;二代头孢菌素:头孢呋辛、头孢孟多、头孢替安、头孢克洛、头孢丙烯等;三代头孢菌素:(1)静脉:头孢曲松、头孢噻肟、头孢唑肟等;(2)口服:头孢地尼、头孢克肟、头孢泊肟酯、头孢托仑匹酯等;呼吸喹诺酮类:左氧氟沙星、莫西沙星、吉米沙星;氨基青霉素:阿莫西林、氨苄西林;青霉素类/酶抑制剂复合物(不包括有抗假单胞菌活性的青霉素类如哌拉西林、替卡西林):阿莫西林/克拉维酸、阿莫西林/舒巴坦、氨苄西林/舒巴坦等;大环内酯类:阿奇霉素、克拉霉素、红霉素;有抗假单胞菌活性的喹诺酮类:环丙沙星、左氧氟沙星;有抗假单胞菌活性的β-内酰胺类:头孢他啶、头孢吡肟、氨曲南、哌拉西林、哌拉西林/他唑巴坦、替卡西林、替卡西林/克拉维酸、头孢哌酮、头孢哌酮/舒巴坦、亚胺培南/西司他丁、美罗培南、帕尼培南/倍他米隆、比阿培南;头霉素类:头孢西丁、头孢美唑、头孢替坦、头孢米诺;氧头孢烯类:拉氧头孢、氟氧头孢;氨基糖苷类:阿米卡星、庆大霉素、依替米星、奈替米星、妥布霉素等;神经氨酸酶抑制剂:奥司他韦、扎那米韦、帕拉米韦;治疗MRSA肺炎的药物:万古霉素、利奈唑胺、替考拉宁、去甲万古霉素、头孢洛林;MRSA:甲氧西林耐药金黄色葡萄球菌;ESBL:产超广谱β-内酰胺酶

另外,选择抗菌药物要参考其药代/药效学特点,对于时间依赖性抗菌药物(如青霉素类、头孢菌素类、单环β-内酰胺类、碳青霉烯类),其杀菌能力在4~5倍最小抑菌浓度(MIC)时基本达到饱和[115],血清药物浓度超过MIC时间(T>MIC)是决定疗效的重要因素[116],根据半衰期1天多次给药可获得更好临床疗效。而浓度依赖性抗菌药物(如氨基糖苷类、喹诺酮类)的杀菌效果随药物浓度升高而增加,药物峰浓度越高效果越好[116],因此通常每天1次用药,可增加药物活性,减少耐药的发生并能降低氨基糖苷类药物肾损害的风险。

本指南对CAP经验性抗感染治疗的推荐意见如下。

1.首剂抗感染药物争取在诊断CAP后尽早使用,以改善疗效,降低病死率,缩短住院时间。但需要注意的是,正确诊断是前提,不能为了追求"早"而忽略必要的鉴别诊断[117,118,119,120](ⅡB)。

2.对于门诊轻症CAP患者,尽量使用生物利用度好的口服抗感染药物治疗。建议口服阿莫西林或阿莫西林/克拉维酸治疗[2,121,122](ⅠB);青年无基础疾病患者或考虑支原体、衣原体感染患者可口服多西环素或米诺环素[1,123](ⅢB);我国肺炎链球菌及肺炎支原体对大环内酯类药物耐药率高[28,36],在耐药率较低地区可用于经验性抗感染治疗[122](ⅡB);呼吸喹诺酮类可用于上述药物耐药率较高地区或药物过敏或不耐受患者的替代治疗[121,122,124](ⅡB)。

3.对于需要住院的CAP患者,推荐单用β-内酰胺类或联合多西环素、米诺环素、大环内酯类或单用呼吸喹诺酮类[2,125,126,127](ⅡB)。但与联合用药相比,呼吸喹诺酮类单药治疗不良反应少[128],且不需要皮试。

4.对于需要入住ICU的无基础疾病青壮年罹患重症CAP的患者,推荐青霉素类/酶抑制剂复合物、三代头孢菌素、厄他培南联合大环内酯类或单用呼吸喹诺酮类静脉治疗[1,2,127,136,137,138,139],而老年人或有基础病患者推荐联合用药[140](ⅡB)。

5.对有误吸风险的CAP患者应优先选择氨苄西林/舒巴坦、阿莫西林/克拉维酸、莫西沙星、碳青霉烯类等有抗厌氧菌活性的药物,或联合应用甲硝唑、克林霉素等[141,142,143,144,145,146,147,148](ⅡA)。

6.年龄≥65岁或有基础疾病(如充血性心力衰竭、心脑血管疾病、慢性呼吸系统疾病、肾功能衰竭、糖尿病等)的住院CAP患者,要考虑肠杆菌科细菌感染的可能[24]。此类患者应进一步评估产ESBL菌感染风险(有产ESBL菌定植或感染史、曾使用三代头孢菌素、有反复或长期住院史、留置植入物以及肾脏替代治疗等)[149,150,151],高风险患者经验性治疗可选择头霉素类[152,153]、哌拉西林/他唑巴坦、头孢哌酮/舒巴坦或厄他培南等[24,154](ⅢB)。

7.在流感流行季节,对怀疑流感病毒感染的CAP患者,推荐常规进行流感病毒抗原或核酸检查,并应积极应用神经氨酸酶抑制剂抗病毒治疗,不必等待流感病原检查结果,即使发病时间超过48 h也推荐应用[155,156,157,158,159,160](ⅠA)。流感流行季节需注意流感继发细菌感染的可能,其中肺炎链球菌、金黄色葡萄球菌及流感嗜血杆菌较为常见[161,162,163](ⅡA)。

8.抗感染治疗一般可于热退2~3 d且主要呼吸道症状明显改善后停药,但疗程应视病情严重程度、缓解速度、并发症以及不同病原体而异,不必以肺部阴影吸收程度作为停用抗菌药物的指征。通常轻、中度CAP患者疗程5~7 d,重症以及伴有肺外并发症患者可适当延长抗感染疗程。非典型病原体治疗反应较慢者疗程延长至10~14 d。金黄色葡萄球菌、铜绿假单胞菌、克雷伯菌属或厌氧菌等容易导致肺组织坏死,抗菌药物疗程可延长至14~21 d[1,2,122,164,165,166,167](ⅠB)。

二、CAP目标性抗感染治疗

一旦获得CAP病原学结果,就可以参考体外药敏试验结果进行目标性治疗。CAP常见致病原、常用抗感染药物和用法见表7。

点击查看表格
表7

CAP常见致病原、常用抗感染药物和用法

表7

CAP常见致病原、常用抗感染药物和用法

致病原 首选抗感染药物 次选抗感染药物 备注
肺炎链球菌      
  青霉素MIC<2 mg/L 青霉素G 160万~240万U静脉滴注1次/4~6 h;氨苄西林4~8 g/d静脉滴注,分2~4次;氨苄西林/舒巴坦1.5~3 g静脉滴注,1次/6 h;阿莫西林/克拉维酸1.2 g静脉滴注,1次/8~12 h;头孢唑林0.5~1 g静脉滴注,1次/6~8 h;头孢拉定0.5~1 g静脉滴注,1次/6 h;头孢呋辛0.75~1.5 g静脉滴注,1次/8 h;拉氧头孢1~2 g静脉滴注,1次/8 h;头霉素类a 头孢曲松;头孢噻肟;克林霉素;多西环素;喹诺酮类b;阿奇霉素;克拉霉素  
  青霉素MIC≥ 2 mg/L 头孢噻肟1~2 g静脉滴注,1次/6~8 h;头孢曲松1~2 g静脉滴注,1次/24 h;左氧氟沙星0.5~0.75 g静脉滴注,1次/d;莫西沙星0.4 g静脉滴注,1次/d;吉米沙星0.32 g口服,1次/d 大剂量氨苄西林(2 g静脉滴注,1次/6 h);万古霉素;去甲万古霉素;利奈唑胺;头孢洛林  
流感嗜血杆菌      
  不产β-内酰胺酶 氨苄西林4~8 g/d静脉滴注,分2~4次;氨苄西林/舒巴坦1.5~3 g静脉滴注,1次/6 h;阿莫西林/克拉维酸1.2 g静脉滴注,1次/8~12 h;头孢呋辛0.75~1.5 g静脉滴注,1次/8 h;拉氧头孢1~2 g静脉滴注,1次/8 h;头霉素类a 喹诺酮类b;多西环素;阿奇霉素;克拉霉素;头孢曲松;头孢噻肟;SMZ-TMP  
  产β-内酰胺酶 阿莫西林/克拉维酸1.2 g静脉滴注,1次/6~8 h;氨苄西林/舒巴坦1.5~3 g静脉滴注,1次/6 h;头孢呋辛0.75~1.5 g静脉滴注,1次/8 h;头孢噻肟1~2 g静脉滴注,1次/6~8 h;头孢曲松1~2 g静脉滴注,1次/24 h 喹诺酮类b;阿奇霉素;氨基糖苷类c 25%~35%菌株β-内酰胺酶阳性,对SMZ-TMP及多西环素耐药率高
  卡他莫拉菌 阿莫西林/克拉维酸1.2 g静脉滴注,1次/8~12 h;氨苄西林/舒巴坦1.5~3 g静脉滴注,1次/6 h;头孢呋辛0.75~1.5 g静脉滴注,1次/8 h;头霉素类a;拉氧头孢1~2 g静脉滴注,1次/8 h 头孢曲松;头孢噻肟;喹诺酮类b;阿奇霉素;克拉霉素;多西环素;米诺环素;SMZ-TMP  
金黄色葡萄球菌      
  甲氧西林敏感 苯唑西林1~2 g静脉滴注,1次/4 h;氯唑西林2~4 g/d静脉滴注,分2~4次;氨苄西林4~8 g/d静脉滴注,分2~4次;阿莫西林/克拉维酸1.2 g静脉滴注,1次/8~12 h;氨苄西林/舒巴坦1.5~3 g静脉滴注,1次/6 h;头孢唑林0.5~1 g静脉滴注,1次/6~8 h;头孢拉定1~2 g静脉滴注,1次/6~8 h;头孢呋辛0.75~1.5 g静脉滴注,1次/8 h;拉氧头孢1~2 g静脉滴注,1次/8 h;头霉素类a 克林霉素;阿奇霉素;红霉素;克拉霉素;多西环素;米诺环素;头孢噻肟;头孢曲松;头孢吡肟;左氧氟沙星;吉米沙星;莫西沙星 万古霉素目标血药谷浓度为15~20 mg/L,一些作者推荐负荷量为25~30 mg/kg。2项随机研究结果表明利奈唑胺与万古霉素疗效相当,亚组分析显示改善MRSA肺炎患者生存率利奈唑胺优于万古霉素。不同时应用万古霉素及利奈唑胺,二者有拮抗作用。如果万古霉素MIC≥ 2 mg/L,换用替代方案
  甲氧西林耐药 万古霉素15 mg/kg静脉滴注,1次/12 h;利奈唑胺600 mg静脉滴注,1次/12 h 去甲万古霉素;替考拉宁;头孢洛林;替加环素;利福平;磷霉素;SMZ-TMP(用于联合用药,不宜单用)  
  铜绿假单胞菌 有抗铜绿假单胞菌作用的β-内酰胺类C±环丙沙星400 mg静脉滴注,1次/8~12 h或±左氧氟沙星750 mg静脉滴注,1次/d或氨基糖苷类c 氨基糖苷类d+环丙沙星或左氧氟沙星;如果多重耐药用多黏菌素 氨基糖苷类与环孢素、万古霉素、两性霉素B及放射造影剂合用时,肾毒性风险增加。重症患者可联合治疗,但治疗价值有争议
肺炎克雷伯菌及肠杆菌科菌      
  不产酶 头孢呋辛0.75~1.5 g静脉滴注,1次/8 h;头孢噻肟1~2 g静脉滴注,1次/6~8 h;头孢曲松1~2 g静脉滴注,1次/24 h;β-内酰胺类/酶抑制剂e;头霉素类a 头孢吡肟;左氧氟沙星;莫西沙星;吉米沙星;氨基糖苷类d ESBL可使所有头孢菌素失效;β-内酰胺类/β-内酰胺酶抑制剂的活性难以预测;对所有喹诺酮类及大部分氨基糖类也耐药。四代头孢菌素、哌拉西林/他唑巴坦体外有抗菌活性,但动物模型尚未完全证明有效。喹诺酮可能对敏感株有效,但多数耐药。某些菌株体外对注射用二、三代头孢菌素敏感,但对头孢他啶耐药,这些菌株感染时,注射用二、三代头孢菌素治疗无效替加环素在体外有活性
致病原 首选抗感染药物 次选抗感染药物 备注
  产ESBL肠杆菌科菌 碳青霉烯类f,哌拉西林/他唑巴坦4.5 g静脉滴注,1次/6~8 h;头孢哌酮/舒巴坦2~4 g静脉滴注,1次/8~12 h 头孢吡肟;替加环素  
  高产AmpC酶肠杆菌 碳青霉烯类f 头孢吡肟;替加环素  
  产碳青霉烯酶肠杆菌 多黏菌素E基质5 mg·kg-1·d-1静脉滴注,分2~4次,最大剂量不超过300 mg/d;多黏菌素B 1.5~2.5 mg·kg-1·d-1静脉滴注,分2次 替加环素;可选择相对敏感药物联合用药  
不动杆菌属 氨苄西林/舒巴坦3 g静脉滴注,1次/6 h;头孢哌酮/舒巴坦2~4 g静脉滴注,1次/8~12 h;喹诺酮类b+阿米卡星15 mg/kg静脉滴注,1次/24 h或+头孢他啶2 g静脉滴注,1次/8~12 h;碳青霉烯类f 头孢哌酮/舒巴坦+阿米卡星或米诺环素;多黏菌素E;多黏菌素B;替加环素;舒巴坦g+米诺环素、多黏菌素E、阿米卡星或碳青霉烯f 氨苄西林/舒巴坦中的舒巴坦成分有抗菌活性,可用3 g静脉滴注,1次/6 h,曾报道优于多黏菌素E
我国鲍曼不动杆菌对碳青霉烯类耐药严重,一般只在MIC≤8 mg/L时使用,建议联合用药
厌氧菌 青霉素类/酶抑制剂复合物e 克林霉素;甲硝唑;莫西沙星;碳青霉烯类f  
肺炎支原体 多西环素首剂200 mg口服,后100 mg口服,2次/d;米诺环素100 mg口服,2次/d;左氧氟沙星500 mg静脉滴注/口服,1次/d;莫西沙星400 mg静脉滴注/口服,1次/d 阿奇霉素;克拉霉素;吉米沙星 大环内酯类药物应用可参照当地药敏试验结果。克林霉素及β-内酰胺类药物对肺炎支原体无效
肺炎衣原体 阿奇霉素500 mg静脉滴注,1次/d;克拉霉素500 mg口服,2次/d;红霉素500 mg静脉滴注,1次/6 h;左氧氟沙星500 mg静脉滴注/口服,1次/d;莫西沙星400 mg静脉滴注/口服,1次/d 多西环素;米诺环素;吉米沙星  
军团菌 阿奇霉素500 mg静脉滴注/口服,1次/d或红霉素0.5 g静脉滴注,1次/6 h;左氧氟沙星500 mg静脉滴注/口服,1次/d;吉米沙星0.32 g口服,1次/d;莫西沙星400 mg静脉滴注/口服,1次/d 多西环素;克拉霉素;米诺环素;SMZ-TMP;上述喹诺酮类+利福平或阿奇霉素 喹诺酮类药物联合大环内酯类药物治疗时,应警惕发生心脏电生理异常的潜在风险
鹦鹉热衣原体 多西环素100 mg静脉滴注/口服,2次/d;米诺环素100 mg口服,2次/d 阿奇霉素;克拉霉素;红霉素;氯霉素 发热和其他症状一般可在48~72 h内得到控制,但抗生素至少连用10 d
伯氏考克斯体 多西环素200 mg口服,1次/d;米诺环素100 mg口服,2次/d 红霉素;氯霉素;左氧氟沙星;莫西沙星;吉米沙星 Q热
类鼻疽博克霍尔德菌 头孢他啶30~50 mg/kg静脉滴注,1次/8 h;亚胺培南20 mg/kg静脉滴注,1次/8 h。治疗至少10 d,如病情好转改口服治疗 静脉给药后口服治疗:氯霉素10 mg/kg, 1次/6 h×8周;多西环素2 mg/kg, 2次/d×20周;SMZ-TMP 5 mg/kg(按TMP计算),2次/d×20周;喹诺酮类b 孕妇:口服药物使用阿莫西林-克拉维酸缓释片(其中含阿莫西林1 000 mg和克拉维酸钾62.5 mg),2片,2次/d×20周。即使依从性很好,复发率仍为10%。头孢他啶每日最大剂量6 g。替加环素:体外敏感,但无临床资料。泰国地区12%~80%菌株对SMZ-TMP耐药。喹诺酮体外有效。多西环素+氯霉素+SMZ-TMP比多西环素单用可更有效地维持疗效。美罗培南也有效
百日咳博德特菌 阿奇霉素0.5 g静脉滴注,1次/d;红霉素0.5 g静脉滴注,1次/6 h SMZ-TMP;克拉霉素  
嗜麦芽窄食单胞菌 SMZ-TMP 0.48 g(400/80 mg剂型),口服,2~3片/次,3次/d;替卡西林/克拉维酸3.2 g静脉滴注,1次/6~8 h 头孢哌酮/舒巴坦;哌拉西林/他唑巴坦;头孢他啶;莫西沙星;替卡西林/克拉维酸+氨曲南 替卡西林/克拉维酸+SMZ-TMP;替卡西林/克拉维酸+环丙沙星在体外有协同抗菌作用
奴卡菌 SMZ-TMP 15 mg·kg-1·d-1(按TMP计算)口服,分2~4次,治疗3~4周,后10 mg·kg-1·d-1口服,分2~4次,治疗3~4个月 亚胺培南/西司他丁+阿米卡星7.5 mg/kg静脉滴注,1次/12 h治疗3~4周,后SMZ-TMP治疗3~4个月 原发肺奴卡菌病疗程为3~4个月
放线菌 氨苄西林2 g静脉滴注,1次/8 h,疗程4~6周,后青霉素V钾2~4 g·kg-1·d-1口服,疗程3~6周 哌拉西林;阿莫西林/克拉维酸;氨苄西林/舒巴坦;哌拉西林/他唑巴坦;多西环素;米诺环素;头孢曲松;克林霉素;氯霉素;阿奇霉素;红霉素;莫西沙星;亚胺培南;厄他培南 可用青霉素G代替氨苄西林:1 000万~2 000万U/d,静脉滴注分次,疗程4~6周
鼠疫耶尔森菌 庆大霉素5 mg/kg静脉滴注,1次/d 多西环素;米诺环素 SMZ-TMP可预防鼠疫肺炎。氯霉素有效,但毒性大;头孢菌素和喹诺酮类在动物模型中有效
致病原 首选抗感染药物 次选抗感染药物 备注
肺炭疽 环丙沙星400 mg静脉滴注,1次/12 h或左氧氟沙星500 mg静脉滴注,1次/d或多西环素100 mg静脉滴注,1次/12 h+克林霉素900 mg静脉滴注,1次/8 h±利福平300 mg静脉滴注,1次/12 h 青霉素G 克林霉素可阻止毒素生成。利福平可进入脑脊液和细胞内。若分离病原对青霉素敏感,青霉素400万U静脉滴注,1次/4 h;产结构型和诱生型β-内酰胺酶,则不单用青霉素或氨苄西林
病情好转后改口服并减少剂量:环丙沙星500 mg口服,2次/d;克林霉素450 mg口服,1次/8 h及利福平300 mg口服,2次/d。疗程60 d 不用头孢菌素或SMZ-TMP
红霉素和阿奇霉素活性处于边缘状态,克拉霉素有效,莫西沙星有效,但无临床资料
流感病毒或人感染禽流感病毒 奥司他韦75 mg口服,2次/d×5 d,肥胖患者奥司他韦剂量增至150 mg口服,2次/d;重症流感患者考虑大剂量(150 mg, 2次/d)和长疗程治疗(如≥10 d);孕妇大剂量的安全性尚未确定;扎那米韦10 mg(5 mg/喷),2次/d×5 d 金刚烷胺;金刚乙胺;严重危及生命的患者可考虑使用帕拉米韦600 mg静脉滴注,1次/d,至少5 d 慢阻肺或哮喘患者,使用扎那米韦有潜在引起支气管痉挛的风险。大多数流行的病毒株对金刚烷和金刚乙胺耐药
腺病毒 西多福韦1 mg/kg静脉滴注,1次/d×2周,每次输注前口服丙磺舒2 g,然后分别在输注后2和8 h各服1 g,监测肾功能   血肌酐>133 μmol/L、CrCl≤55 ml/min或尿蛋白≥100 mg/L时严禁使用
呼吸道合胞病毒 目前无特效药物 利巴韦林0.5~1 g/d静脉滴注,1次/12 h(不常规推荐) 主要是补液、吸氧对症治疗
中东呼吸综合征冠状病毒 目前无特效药物 聚乙二醇干扰素α-2a皮下180 μg/周×2周+利巴韦林首剂2 000 mg口服,后1 200 mg口服,1次/8 h×4 d,后600 mg口服,1次/8 h×4~6 d(利巴韦林应根据肾功能调整剂量,注意监测肾功能)[193] 回顾性研究结果显示,对于重症患者可能提高14 d生存率,但不改善28 d生存率;可引起血红蛋白降低
曲霉 伏立康唑第1天6 mg/kg静脉滴注,1次/12 h,后4 mg/kg静脉滴注,1次/12 h或200 mg口服,1次/12 h(体重≥40 kg),或100 mg口服,1次/12 h(体重<40 kg);两性霉素B 0.75~1 mg·kg-1·d-1静脉滴注(起始剂量1~5 mg/d);两性霉素B脂质体(L-AmB) 3~5 mg·kg-1·d-1静脉滴注或两性霉素B脂质复合物(ALBC)5 mg·kg-1·d-1静脉滴注 伊曲康唑;卡泊芬净;米卡芬净;泊沙康唑 伏立康唑疗效优于两性霉素B,CrCl<50 ml/min的患者只能口服,不能静脉给药
卡泊芬净对侵袭性肺曲霉病有效率约50%,可作为补救治疗方法
联合治疗地位不清楚,不常规推荐,难治病例可考虑;经典联合治疗是棘白霉素类联合唑类或两性霉素B脂质体
毛霉 两性霉素B 0.75~1 mg·kg-1·d-1静脉滴注(起始剂量1~5 mg/d);两性霉素B脂质体(L-AmB) 3~5 mg·kg-1·d-1静脉滴注或两性霉素B脂质复合物(ALBC)5 mg·kg-1·d-1静脉滴注 泊沙康唑 泊沙康唑补救方案的完全或部分有效率为60%~80%
人肺孢子菌肺炎      
  非急性患者,能够口服药物,PaO2>70 mmHg SMZ-TMP (800/160 mg剂型)2片口服,1次/8 h×21 d或氨苯砜100 mg口服,1次/d+甲氧苄啶5 mg/kg口服,3次/d×21 d 克林霉素300~450 mg口服,1次/6 h+伯氨喹啉15 mg基质口服,1次/d治疗21 d,或阿托伐醌悬浮剂750 mg口服,2次/d,进餐时服用×21 d 危重患者,PaO2<70 mmHg时可使用糖皮质激素:开始泼尼松40 mg口服,2次/d×5 d,然后40 mg口服,1次/d×5 d,后20 mg口服,1次/d×11 d
  急性患者,不能口服药物,PaO2<70 mmHg(干咳、进行性呼吸困难,弥漫性肺浸润病变) 在SMZ-TMP给药前15~30 min给予糖皮质激素,SMZ-TMP 15 mg·kg-1·d-1分次,1次/8 h(按TMP成分计算剂量)或2片,1次/8 h,治疗21 d 克林霉素600 mg静脉滴注,1次/8 h+伯氨喹啉30 mg基质口服,1次/d;羟乙磺酸喷他脒4 mg·kg-1·d-1静脉滴注,治疗21 d SMZ-TMP耐药肺孢子菌虽然少见,但确实存在。卡泊芬净在动物模型有活性

注:抗菌药物的选择最终应遵循药敏实验的结果以及当地微生物学专家意见,并根据当地数据选择合适抗菌药物剂量;CrCl:肌酐清除率;MIC:最小抑菌浓度;MRSA:耐甲氧西林金黄色葡萄球菌;SMZ-TMP:磺胺甲噁唑/甲氧苄啶;a头孢西丁1~2 g静脉滴注,1次/6~8 h;头孢美唑1~2 g静脉滴注,1次/8~12 h;头孢替坦1~3 g静脉滴注,1次/12 h(最大剂量≤6 g/d);头孢米诺1 g静脉滴注,1次/8 h;b左氧氟沙星、莫西沙星、吉米沙星(不作为青霉素敏感菌株的一线治疗选择);环丙沙星主要用于革兰阴性菌治疗(包括流感嗜血杆菌);c替卡西林3 g静脉滴注,1次/4~6 h;哌拉西林2~4 g静脉滴注,1次/4~6 h;哌拉西林/他唑巴坦4.5 g静脉滴注,1次/6~8 h;氨曲南1~2 g静脉滴注,1次/8~12 h;头孢他啶1~2 g静脉滴注,1次/8~12 h;头孢吡肟1~2 g静脉滴注,1次/8~12 h;头孢哌酮1~2 g静脉滴注,1次/8 h;头孢哌酮/舒巴坦(2∶1) 3 g静脉滴注,1次/8~12 h;亚胺培南/西司他丁(对铜绿假单胞菌) 500 mg(按亚胺培南计算)静脉滴注,1次/6~8 h;美罗培南1~2 g静脉滴注,1次/8 h;帕尼培南/倍他米隆1~2 g静脉滴注,1次/8~12 h;比阿培南0.3 g静脉滴注,1次/12 h;d庆大霉素/妥布霉素5.1 mg·kg-1·d-1静脉滴注,1次/d;阿米卡星15 mg/kg静脉滴注,1次/d;依替米星0.2~0.3 g静脉滴注,1次/d;奈替米星6.5 mg/kg静脉滴注,1次/d;e哌拉西林/他唑巴坦4.5 g静脉滴注,1次/6~8 h;替卡西林/克拉维酸3.2 g静脉滴注,1次/6~8 h;氨苄西林/舒巴坦1.5~3 g静脉滴注,1次/6 h或阿莫西林/克拉维酸1.2 g静脉滴注,1次/8~12 h;f亚胺培南/西司他丁500 mg(按亚胺培南计算)静脉滴注,1次/6~8 h;美罗培南1~2 g静脉滴注,1次/8 h;厄他培南1~2 g静脉滴注,1次/24 h;帕尼培南/倍他米隆1~2 g静脉滴注,1次/8~12 h;比阿培南0.3 g静脉滴注,1次/12 h;g舒巴坦:4~8 g/d静脉滴注,分2~4次

第五部分 CAP的辅助治疗

CAP是感染性疾病的最主要死因,除了针对病原体的抗感染治疗外,中、重症患者补液、保持水电解质平衡、营养支持以及物理治疗等辅助治疗对CAP患者也是必要的[2](ⅡB)。合并低血压的CAP患者早期液体复苏是降低严重CAP病死率的重要措施[1,168](ⅡB)。低氧血症患者的氧疗和辅助通气也是改善患者预后的重要治疗手段,此外雾化、体位引流、胸部物理治疗等也被用于CAP的治疗[169,170,171](ⅡB)。重症CAP的辅助药物还包括糖皮质激素、静脉注射丙种球蛋白(IVIG)、他汀类药物,但到目前为止无确切证据证明其有效性[172](ⅡB)。

一、氧疗和辅助呼吸

1.住院CAP患者应及时评估血氧水平,存在低氧血症的患者推荐鼻导管或面罩氧疗,维持血氧饱和度在90%以上。但对于有高碳酸血症风险的患者,在获得血气结果前,血氧饱和度宜维持在88%~92%[173,174](ⅢA)。最近研究结果表明:经鼻导管加温湿化的高流量吸氧(40~60 L/min)也可用于临床[175,176](ⅡB)。

2.与高浓度氧疗相比,无创通气(NIV,包括双水平正压通气或持续正压通气)能降低急性呼吸衰竭CAP患者的气管插管率[177,178,179,180,181]和病死率[177,181],使氧合指数得到更快、更明显的改善[177,178,182,183],降低多器官衰竭[179]和感染性休克的发生率[177],合并慢阻肺的CAP患者获益更明显[180](ⅡB)。但对于并发成人急性呼吸窘迫综合征(ARDS)的CAP患者,使用NIV的失败率高[184],且不能改善预后[177],重度低氧CAP患者(氧合指数<150 mmHg)也不适宜采用NIV[184](ⅡA)。

另外,需要及时识别NIV失败。在使用NIV的最初1~2 h不能改善患者的呼吸频率和氧合状态[180,184,185],或不能降低初始高碳酸血症患者的血二氧化碳水平[180],均提示NIV失败,应立即改为气管插管呼吸机辅助呼吸(ⅡA)。

3.存在ARDS的CAP患者气管插管后宜采用小潮气量机械通气(6 ml/kg理想体重)[186,187](ⅠA)。

4.重症CAP患者如果合并ARDS且常规机械通气不能改善,可以使用体外膜肺氧合(ECMO)[188,189,190,191](ⅡB)。ECMO的适应证包括:(1)可逆性的呼吸衰竭伴有严重低氧(氧合指数<80 mmHg或即使用高水平的PEEP辅助通气6 h也不能纠正低氧);(2)酸中毒严重失代偿(pH值<7.15);(3)过高的平台压(如>35~45 cmH2O)[192]。

二、糖皮质激素

糖皮质激素能降低合并感染性休克CAP患者的病死率[194,195,196],推荐琥珀酸氢化可的松200 mg/d[197],感染性休克纠正后应及时停药,用药一般不超过7 d(ⅡC)。糖皮质激素对不合并感染性休克的其他重症CAP患者的益处并不确定。此外,全身应用糖皮质激素可能导致需要胰岛素干预的高血糖发生[198,199]。

第六部分 CAP治疗后的评价、处理和出院标准

大多数CAP患者在初始治疗后72 h临床症状改善,但影像学改善滞后于临床症状[200,201,202,203]。应在初始治疗后72 h对病情进行评价,部分患者对治疗的反应相对较慢,只要临床表现无恶化,可以继续观察,不必急于更换抗感染药物[1,204,205,206](ⅠA)。

一、初始治疗后评价的内容

根据患者对初始治疗的反应可分为治疗有效或治疗失败,并进行相应处理。初始治疗后评价应包括以下5个方面。

1.临床表现:

包括呼吸道及全身症状、体征(ⅢA)。

2.生命体征:

一般情况、意识、体温、呼吸频率、心率和血压等[2](ⅠA)。

3.一般实验室检查:

包括血常规、血生化、血气分析、C反应蛋白、降钙素原等指标。建议住院患者72 h后重复C反应蛋白、降钙素原和血常规检查,有助于区分治疗失败与治疗反应慢的患者,重症患者应严密监测[2,207,208,209,210](ⅡB)。

4.微生物学指标:

可重复进行常规微生物学检查,必要时采用分子生物学和血清学等方法,积极获取病原学证据[211,212,213,214,215,216,217,218,219,220](ⅡB)。

5.胸部影像学:

临床症状明显改善的患者不推荐常规复查胸部影像;症状或体征持续存在或恶化时,应复查X线胸片或胸部CT确定肺部病灶变化[2,221](ⅠA)。

二、初始治疗有效的定义及处理
1.初始治疗有效的定义:

经治疗后达到临床稳定,可以认定为初始治疗有效。临床稳定标准需符合下列所有5项指标:(1)体温≤37.8 ℃;(2)心率≤100次/min;(3)呼吸频率≤24次/min;(4)收缩压≥90 mmHg;(5)氧饱和度≥90%(或者动脉氧分压≥60 mmHg,吸空气条件下)[1,222](ⅡA)。

2.初始治疗有效的处理:

(1)经初始治疗后症状明显改善者可继续原有抗感染药物治疗(ⅠA);(2)对达到临床稳定且能接受口服药物治疗的患者,改用同类或抗菌谱相近、对致病菌敏感的口服制剂进行序贯治疗[1,223](ⅠA)。

三、初始治疗失败的定义及处理

1.初始治疗失败的定义:初始治疗后患者症状无改善,需要更换抗感染药物,或初始治疗一度改善又恶化,病情进展,认为初始治疗失败(ⅡA)。

临床上主要包括两种形式[224,225]:(1)进展性肺炎:在入院72 h内进展为急性呼吸衰竭需要机械通气支持或脓毒性休克需要血管活性药物治疗[224,225];(2)对治疗无反应[222,226]:初始治疗72 h,患者不能达到临床稳定标准。

2.出现局部或全身并发症[2,206,227],如肺炎旁积液、脓胸、肺脓肿、ARDS、静脉炎、败血症及转移性脓肿是初始治疗失败的危险因素。其他要考虑初始治疗未覆盖的非细菌性微生物或耐药菌感染以及非感染性疾病的可能。初始治疗失败的原因及处理详见图1[1,51,224,227,228]。

点击查看大图
图1
初始治疗失败诊疗流程图

注:PK/PD:药代/药效动力学

图1
初始治疗失败诊疗流程图
四、出院标准

患者诊断明确,经有效治疗后病情明显好转,体温正常超过24 h且满足临床稳定的其他4项指标,可以转为口服药物治疗,无需要进一步处理的并发症及精神障碍等情况时,可以考虑出院[1](ⅠA)。

第七部分 特殊类型的CAP
一、特殊病原体
(一)病毒性肺炎

呼吸道病毒在CAP中起着重要作用,可以是CAP的直接病原体,也可以使患者易于继发肺炎链球菌、金黄色葡萄球菌等细菌性肺炎;原发性病毒性肺炎、继发或合并细菌感染均不乏重症[53,229]。我国免疫功能正常成人CAP检测到病毒的比例为15.0%~34.9%[15,26,27],常见病毒有流感病毒、副流感病毒、鼻病毒、腺病毒、人偏肺病毒及呼吸道合胞病毒等。2009年以来,新甲型H1N1流感病毒已经成为季节性流感的主要病毒株,与季节性病毒株H3N2共同流行[15,26,27,230,231,232,233,234,235]。近年来,我国亦有人感染禽流感(H5N1、H7N9和H10N8)和输入性中东呼吸系统综合征病例[236,237,238,239,240,241,242,243,244,245,246,247,248,249,250,251,252,253]。结合流行病学(如流行季节和疫区旅行史等)和临床特征早期诊断、早期抗病毒(48 h内)及合理的支持对症治疗是降低病死率的关键手段[101,159,230,231,254,255](ⅡB)。主要呼吸道病毒性肺炎的流行病学、临床特征及治疗见表8,诊断和预防参见本指南相应部分,高传染性和新发呼吸道病毒尤其应注意流行病学线索。

点击查看表格
表8

主要呼吸道病毒性肺炎的流行病学及临床特征

表8

主要呼吸道病毒性肺炎的流行病学及临床特征

呼吸道病毒 流行病学要点 临床特征 影像学特征 抗病毒治疗
甲型H1N1流感病毒、H3N2流感病毒 流行季节北方为11月底至次年2月底,南方另一个高峰为5~8月;流感大流行可发生在任何季节;高危人群包括老年(年龄≥65岁)、基础疾病、肥胖、免疫功能抑制、妊娠中期以上孕妇等[101]。经空气、飞沫和直接接触传播,潜伏期一般为1~7 d,多为2~4 d 发热、咳嗽,白细胞正常或减低,淋巴细胞减低,CRP<20 mg/L,肌酸激酶或乳酸脱氢酶可有升高,部分患者进展迅速,可出现持续高热、严重呼吸困难和顽固性低氧血症[230,231,232,233,234,235] 重症者双肺磨玻璃或斑片结节状浸润影,可伴有实变 奥司他韦、扎那米韦、帕拉米韦[101,230,254,256,257,258](ⅠA)
人感染禽流感病毒 人对禽流感病毒缺乏免疫力,与不明原因病死家禽、活禽市场或禽流感确诊患者密切接触者为高暴露人群[242,255]。主要经接触病死禽及其污染的物品和环境传播,H5N1存在少数非持续的人间传播。潜伏期一般在7 d以内 与流感病毒肺炎相似,但白细胞、淋巴细胞或血小板减低更为多见,谷丙转氨酶、乳酸脱氢酶及肌酸激酶升高更明显。H7N9感染患者咯血及凝血功能异常更常见[236,240,243,248,249,250,251] 与流感病毒肺炎相似[236,240] 与流感病毒肺炎相同[255](ⅠA)
腺病毒 流行季节为每年2~5月;无基础疾病的青壮年多见[26]。潜伏期3~8 d。HAdV-55、HAdV-11、 HAdV-7为较常见的血清型[259,260] 与流感病毒肺炎相似,在免疫正常人群中更常见于青壮年[259,260,261,262] 重症者以肺实变为主,可伴有磨玻璃和斑片影,可为单侧或双侧、多叶[259,260,262] 西多福韦(cidofovir)[53,263](ⅡB)
呼吸道合胞病毒 是婴儿和幼儿下呼吸道感染最重要的病原体,在成人中多见于高龄、有心肺基础疾病、免疫抑制者[53,264,265]。潜伏期4~5 d 与流感病毒肺炎相似[53] 特征性表现为结节影、树芽征伴支气管壁增厚[266] 利巴韦林静脉或口服(不常规推荐)[53,264,265,266,267](ⅡB)
中东呼吸系统综合征冠状病毒 人群普遍易感,需特别注意有沙特阿拉伯、阿联酋等疫区工作或旅游史;或与MERS确诊患者有密切接触史者[268,269]。潜伏期2~14 d 发热伴畏寒、寒战、咳嗽、气短、肌肉酸痛;腹泻、恶心呕吐、腹痛等胃肠道症状较为常见;部分患者伴有血小板减少、淋巴细胞减少;乳酸脱氢酶及肌酐升高[268,269] 以双侧胸膜下和基底部肺组织受累为主的广泛磨玻璃影,可伴有实变影,亦可有胸腔积液、小叶间隔增厚等表现[269,270] 利巴韦林联合干扰素[193,271](ⅡC)
(二)军团菌肺炎

国内资料显示,军团菌肺炎在CAP中所占比例为5%[17]。军团菌肺炎常发展为重症,住院的军团菌感染者近50%需入住ICU[272],病死率达5%~30%[272]。易感人群包括老年、男性及吸烟者[273,274]、伴有慢性心肺基础疾病[272,274,275,276]、糖尿病[274,275]、恶性肿瘤、免疫抑制[273,274,275]、应用肿瘤坏死因子-α拮抗剂[277]的人群。流行病学史包括接触被污染的空调或空调冷却塔以及被污染的饮用水、温泉洗浴、园艺工作、管道修理、军团菌病源地旅游史等[2,275,276,278]。

当成人CAP患者出现伴相对缓脉的发热、急性发作性头痛、非药物引发的意识障碍或嗜睡、非药物引起的腹泻、休克、急性肝肾功能损伤、低钠血症、低磷血症、对β-内酰胺类抗菌药物无应答时,要考虑到军团菌肺炎的可能[132,276,278,279,280,281,282,283]。军团菌肺炎胸部影像相对特异性的表现是磨玻璃影中混杂着边缘相对清晰的实变影。虽然临床症状改善,影像学在短时间内仍有进展(1周内),或肺部浸润影几周甚至几个月后才完全吸收也是军团菌肺炎的影像学特点[284,285,286]。

对于免疫功能正常的轻、中度军团菌肺炎患者,可采用大环内酯类、呼吸喹诺酮类或多西环素单药治疗;对于重症病例、单药治疗失败、免疫功能低下的患者建议喹诺酮类药物联合利福平或大环内酯类药物治疗[1,2,287,288,289,290](ⅠA)。当喹诺酮类药物联合大环内酯类药物治疗时,应警惕发生心脏电生理异常的潜在风险[2](ⅠA)。

(三)社区获得性耐甲氧西林金黄色葡萄球菌(CA-MRSA)肺炎

目前我国大陆CA-MRSA肺炎较少,仅限于儿童及青少年少量病例报道[19,20,21,22]。在皮肤软组织金黄色葡萄球菌感染中,MRSA所占比例也较低(5/164)[291]。我国台湾地区CAP住院患者分离出MRSA的比例为4.3%[292],日本为3.3%[293],而美国一项调查结果为6.2%~8.9%[294]。估计CA-MRSA肺炎的发病率为0.51~0.64/10万人[295]。CA-MRSA肺炎病情严重,病死率高达41.1%[296]。易感人群包括与MRSA感染者或携带者密切接触者、流感病毒感染者、监狱服刑人员、竞技类体育运动员、近期服兵役的人员、男性有同性性行为者、经静脉吸毒的人员、蒸气浴使用者及在感染前使用过抗菌药物的人群[295]。

CA-MRSA肺炎病情进展迅速,其临床症状包括类流感症状[296,297]、发热、咳嗽、胸痛、胃肠道症状、皮疹,严重者可出现咯血、意识模糊、急性呼吸窘迫综合征、多器官衰竭、休克等重症肺炎表现。也可并发酸中毒、弥散性血管内凝血、深静脉血栓、气胸或脓胸、肺气囊、肺脓肿及急性坏死性肺炎[295]。CA-MRSA肺炎影像学特征为双侧广泛的肺实变及多发空洞[298]。流感后或既往健康年轻患者出现空洞、坏死性肺炎,伴胸腔积液快速增加、大咯血、中性粒细胞减少及红斑性皮疹时需疑诊CA-MRSA肺炎[299]。糖肽类或利奈唑胺是CA-MRSA肺炎的首选药物[1,299](ⅢB)。

二、特殊人群
(一)老年CAP

目前普遍将老年CAP定义为≥65岁人群发生的肺炎[2,300,301]。随着年龄增长,老年CAP的发病率递增。

老年CAP的临床表现可不典型[302,303],有时仅表现为食欲减退、尿失禁、体力下降、精神状态异常等[2,301],而发热、咳嗽、白细胞或中性粒细胞增高等典型肺炎表现不明显[303],容易漏诊和误诊。呼吸急促是老年CAP的一个敏感指标[304]。当老年人出现发热或上述不典型症状时,应尽早行胸部影像学检查以明确诊断[304]。

肺炎链球菌仍然是老年CAP的主要病原体,但对于伴有基础疾病的老年患者(充血性心力衰竭、心脑血管疾病、慢性呼吸系统疾病、肾功能衰竭、糖尿病等),要考虑肠杆菌科细菌感染的可能[24,300,305]。此类患者应进一步评估产ESBL肠杆菌科菌的危险因素,有产ESBL耐药菌感染高风险的患者可经验性选择头霉素类、哌拉西林/他唑巴坦、头孢哌酮/舒巴坦、厄他培南或其他碳青霉烯类[152,153,154,306](ⅢB)。相关危险因素包括:有产ESBL肠杆菌定植或感染史、前期曾使用三代头孢菌素、反复或长期住院史、留置医疗器械以及肾脏替代治疗等[149,150,151]。

老年人脏器功能减退,在治疗时需关注各脏器功能,避免发生副作用。肾脏排泄功能降低导致药物半衰期延长,治疗时应根据年龄和肌酐清除率等情况适当调整药物剂量[304](ⅡB)。若无禁忌证,老年住院CAP患者应评估深静脉血栓风险,必要时应用低分子肝素预防[307](ⅡB)。

老年CAP治疗失败率为6%~15%[308],常见原因为伴发严重脓毒血症、心肌梗死或肺炎进展[309]。心血管事件在老年CAP中很常见,为病死率增加的原因之一[308,309]。

(二)吸入性肺炎

吸入性肺炎是指食物、口咽分泌物、胃内容物等吸入到喉部和下呼吸道所引起的肺部感染性病变,不包括吸入无菌胃液所致的肺化学性炎症[310,311,312]。吸入性肺炎多由隐性误吸引起,约占老年CAP的71%[312]。

诊断吸入性肺炎时应注意以下几点:(1)有无吸入的危险因素(如脑血管病等各种原因所致的意识障碍、吞咽困难、牙周疾病或口腔卫生状况差等)[122,308,313,314,315,316];(2)胸部影像学显示病灶是否以上叶后段、下叶背段或后基底段为主,呈坠积样特点[312,317,318,319]。

吸入性肺炎多为厌氧菌、革兰阴性菌及金黄色葡萄球菌感染,治疗应覆盖以上病原体,并根据患者病情严重程度选择阿莫西林/克拉维酸、氨苄西林/舒巴坦、莫西沙星、碳青霉烯类等具有抗厌氧菌活性的药物,或联合应用甲硝唑、克林霉素[143,146,147,148,316,320,321](ⅡA),待痰培养及药敏试验结果回报后进行针对性目标治疗。

对于有误吸危险因素的老年患者需要加强护理,减少吸入性肺炎的发生:(1)长期卧床者若无禁忌证应把床头抬高35~40°并采用适当的进食体位;(2)保持口腔卫生,降低口咽部细菌定植;(3)对严重吞咽困难和已发生误吸的老年患者,应权衡利弊留置胃管给予鼻饲饮食;(4)停用或少用抗精神病药物、抗组胺药物和抗胆碱能药物[142,322,323](ⅡB)。

第八部分 预防

戒烟[1]、避免酗酒、保证充足营养、保持口腔健康[324]有助于预防肺炎的发生(ⅢB)。保持良好手卫生习惯,有咳嗽、喷嚏等呼吸道症状时戴口罩或用纸巾、肘部衣物遮挡口鼻有助于减少呼吸道感染病原体播散[325](ⅢA)。

预防接种肺炎链球菌疫苗可减少特定人群罹患肺炎的风险。目前应用的肺炎链球菌疫苗包括肺炎链球菌多糖疫苗(pneumococcal polysaccharides vaccine, PPV)和肺炎链球菌结合疫苗(pneumococcal conjugate vaccine, PCV)。

我国已上市23价肺炎链球菌多糖疫苗(PPV23),可有效预防侵袭性肺炎链球菌的感染[326]。PPV23建议接种人群(ⅠB):(1)年龄≥65岁;(2)年龄<65岁,但伴有慢性肺部疾病、慢性心血管疾病、糖尿病、慢性肾功能衰竭、肾病综合征、慢性肝病(包括肝硬化)、酒精中毒、耳蜗移植、脑脊液漏、免疫功能低下、功能或器质性无脾;(3)长期居住养老院或其他医疗机构;(4)吸烟者[327]。建议肌肉或皮下注射1剂,通常不建议在免疫功能正常者中开展复种,但可在年龄<65岁并伴有慢性肾功能衰竭、肾病综合征、功能或器质性无脾及免疫功能受损者中开展复种,2剂PPV23间至少间隔5年,首次接种年龄≥65岁者无需复种(ⅠB)。

13价肺炎链球菌结合疫苗(PCV13)可覆盖我国70%~80%的肺炎链球菌血清型[328,329],有良好的免疫原性[330],但目前我国还未上市。PCV13接种策略:未接种肺炎球菌疫苗且年龄≥65岁的成人,应接种1剂PCV13,并在6~12个月后接种1剂PPV23;之前接种过1剂或多剂PPV23且年龄≥65岁的成人,距最近1剂PPV23接种≥1年后应该接种1剂PCV13;65岁前曾接种PPV23的成人,应该在65岁之后(并且距上次接种至少1年后)接种PCV13,在至少6~12个月后可重复接种PPV23,但2剂PPV23间隔≥5年[331](ⅠB)。

流感疫苗可预防流感发生或减轻流感相关症状[332,333],对流感病毒肺炎和流感继发细菌性肺炎有一定的预防作用[334],适用人群较肺炎链球菌疫苗更加广泛(详情参见"流行性感冒诊断与治疗指南"[101]及国家流感中心网站[335]),建议每年流感季接种1剂[1](ⅠA)。联合应用肺炎球菌疫苗和流感疫苗可降低老年患者的病死率[336](ⅡB)。

编写组成员:

顾 问:刘又宁,何礼贤

总负责:瞿介明

总执笔:曹彬

总协调:黄怡

核心组成员(按拼音排序):曹彬,陈愉,程齐俭,范红,黄怡,江梅,佘丹阳,沈宁,田欣伦,王辉,徐金富,张静

写作组成员(按拼音排序):陈愉生,方向群,高占成,贺蓓,胡成平,赖国祥,李尔然,李玉苹,刘红,刘庆华,马忠森,牟向东,邵长周,施毅,苏欣,孙坚,孙铁英,童朝晖,王静,徐峰,叶枫,张巧,张天托,张湘燕,张伟

秘 书:周飞

下列专家为本指南修订提供了宝贵意见,在此一并表示感谢:

药理学专家

解放军总医院临床药理研究室:王睿;北京大学临床药理研究所:吕媛;北京大学人民医院药剂科:李玉珍

感染病学专家

复旦大学抗生素研究所:王明贵;复旦大学中山医院感染科:胡必杰;四川大学华西医院感染科:吕晓菊

临床微生物学专家

广州呼吸疾病研究所:卓超

重症医学专家

广州医学院第一附属医院:黎毅敏;上海交通大学医学院附属瑞金医院:陈尔真

急诊医学专家

北京协和医院急诊科:于学忠;上海交通大学医学院第六人民医院急诊科:封启明

国外专家

欧州临床微生物和感染病学会主席:Murat Akova;美国胸科学会和美国感染病学会成人CAP指南(2007年)联合主席:Lionel A. Mandell

参考文献
[1]
MandellLA, WunderinkRG, AnzuetoA, et al. Infectious Diseases Society of America/American Thoracic Society consensus guidelines on the management of community-acquired pneumonia in adults[J]. Clin Infect Dis, 2007, 44( Suppl 2): S27- 72. DOI: 10.1086/511159.
[2]
LimWS, BaudouinSV, GeorgeRC, et al. BTS guidelines for the management of community acquired pneumonia in adults: update 2009[J]. Thorax, 2009, 64( Suppl 3): iii1- 55. DOI: 10.1136/thx.2009.121434.
[3]
JainS, SelfWH, WunderinkRG, et al. Community-Acquired Pneumonia Requiring Hospitalization among U.S. Adults[J]. N Engl J Med, 2015, 373( 5): 415- 427. DOI: 10.1056/NEJMoa1500245.
[4]
TakakiM, NakamaT, IshidaM, et al. High incidence of community-acquired pneumonia among rapidly aging population in Japan: a prospective hospital-based surveillance[J]. Jpn J Infect Dis, 2014, 67( 4): 269- 275. DOI: 10.7883/yoken.66.269.
[5]
刘慧,肖新才,陆剑云,等. 2009—2012年广州市社区获得性肺炎流行特征和病原学研究[J]. 中华预防医学杂志, 2013, 47( 12): 1089- 1094. DOI: 10.3760/cma.j.issn.0253-9624.2013.12.005.
[6]
TakayanagiN, HaraK, TokunagaD, et al. Etiology and outcome of community-acquired pneumonia in relation to age and severity in hospitalized adult patients[J]. Nihon Kokyuki Gakkai Zasshi, 2006, 44( 12): 906- 915.
[7]
WelteT, KohnleinT. Global and local epidemiology of community-acquired pneumonia: the experience of the CAPNETZ Network[J]. Semin Respir Crit Care Med, 2009, 30( 2): 127- 135. DOI: 10.1055/s-0029-1202941.
[8]
RestrepoMI, MortensenEM, VelezJA, et al. A comparative study of community-acquired pneumonia patients admitted to the ward and the ICU[J]. Chest, 2008, 133( 3): 610- 617. DOI: 10.1378/chest.07-1456.
[9]
MortensenEM, RestrepoM, AnzuetoA, et al. Effects of guideline-concordant antimicrobial therapy on mortality among patients with community-acquired pneumonia[J]. Am J Med, 2004, 117( 10): 726- 731. DOI: 10.1016/j.amjmed.2004.06.028.
[10]
RestrepoMI, MortensenEM, RelloJ, et al. Late admission to the ICU in patients with community-acquired pneumonia is associated with higher mortality[J]. Chest, 2010, 137( 3): 552- 557. DOI: 10.1378/chest.09-1547.
[11]
HraiechS, AlingrinJ, DizierS, et al. Time to intubation is associated with outcome in patients with community-acquired pneumonia[J]. PLoS One, 2013, 8( 9): e74937. DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0074937.
[12]
国家卫生和计划生育委员会统计信息中心. 中国卫生和计划生育统计年鉴[EB/OL].( 2014-04-26)[ 2015-11-6]. http://www.nhfpc.gov.cn/htmlfiles/zwgkzt/ptjnj/year2013/index2013.html.
[13]
TaoLL, HuBJ, HeLX, et al. Etiology and antimicrobial resistance of community-acquired pneumonia in adult patients in China[J]. Chin Med J (Engl), 2012, 125( 17): 2967- 2972. DOI: 10.3760/cma.j.issn.0366-6999.2012.17.002.
[14]
LiuYF, GaoY, ChenMF, et al. Etiological analysis and predictive diagnostic model building of community-acquired pneumonia in adult outpatients in Beijing, China[J]. BMC Infect Dis, 2013, 13: 309. DOI: 10.1186/1471-2334-13-309.
[15]
CaoB, RenLL, ZhaoF, et al. Viral and Mycoplasma pneumoniae community-acquired pneumonia and novel clinical outcome evaluation in ambulatory adult patients in China[J]. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis, 2010, 29( 11): 1443- 1448. DOI: 10.1007/s10096-010-1003-2.
[16]
BaoZ, YuanX, WangL, et al. The incidence and etiology of community-acquired pneumonia in fever outpatients[J]. Exp Biol Med (Maywood), 2012, 237( 11): 1256- 1261. DOI: 10.1258/ebm.2012.012014.
[17]
刘又宁,陈民钧,赵铁梅,等. 中国城市成人社区获得性肺炎665例病原学多中心调查[J]. 中华结核和呼吸杂志, 2006, 29( 1): 3- 8. DOI: 10.3760/j:issn:1001-0939.2006.01.003.
[18]
LiuY, ChenM, ZhaoT, et al. Causative agent distribution and antibiotic therapy assessment among adult patients with community acquired pneumonia in Chinese urban population[J]. BMC Infect Dis, 2009, 9: 31. DOI: 10.1186/1471-2334-9-31.
[19]
GengW, YangY, WuD, et al. Community-acquired, methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus isolated from children with community-onset pneumonia in China[J]. Pediatr Pulmonol, 2010, 45( 4): 387- 394. DOI: 10.1002/ppul.21202.
[20]
ChenJ, LuoY, ZhangS, et al. Community-acquired necrotizing pneumonia caused by methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus producing Panton-Valentine leukocidin in a Chinese teenager: case report and literature review[J]. Int J Infect Dis, 2014, 26: 17- 21. DOI: 10.1016/j.ijid.2014.02.025.
[21]
QuT, FengY, JiangY, et al. Whole genome analysis of a community-associated methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus ST59 isolate from a case of human sepsis and severe pneumonia in China[J]. PLoS One, 2014, 9( 2): e89235. DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0089235.
[22]
包婺平,郭海英,陈宇清,等. 社区获得性耐甲氧西林金黄色葡萄球菌坏死性肺炎伴血流感染一例[J]. 中国呼吸与危重监护杂志, 2013, 12( 1): 89- 91. DOI: 10.7507/1671-6205.20130020.
[23]
王辉,刘亚丽,陈民钧,等. 2009—2010年中国六城市成人社区获得性呼吸道感染病原菌耐药性监测[J]. 中华结核和呼吸杂志, 2012, 35( 2): 113- 119. DOI: 10.3760/cma.j.issn.1001-0939.2012.02.012.
[24]
Von BaumH, WelteT, MarreR, et al. Community-acquired pneumonia through Enterobacteriaceae and Pseudomonas aeruginosa: diagnosis, incidence and predictors[J]. Eur Respir J, 2010, 35( 3): 598- 605. DOI: 10.1183/09031936.00091809.
[25]
ArancibiaF, BauerTT, EwigS, et al. Community-acquired pneumonia due to gram-negative bacteria and pseudomonas aeruginosa: incidence, risk, and prognosis[J]. Arch Intern Med, 2002, 162( 16): 1849- 1858. DOI: 10.1001/archinte.162.16.1849.
[26]
QuJX, GuL, PuZH, et al. Viral etiology of community-acquired pneumonia among adolescents and adults with mild or moderate severity and its relation to age and severity[J]. BMC Infect Dis, 2015, 15: 89. DOI: 10.1186/s12879-015-0808-0.
[27]
ZhanY, YangZ, ChenR, et al. Respiratory virus is a real pathogen in immunocompetent community-acquired pneumonia: comparing to influenza like illness and volunteer controls[J]. BMC Pulm Med, 2014, 14: 144. DOI: 10.1186/1471-2466-14-144.
[28]
赵春江,张菲菲,王占伟,等. 2012年中国成人社区获得性呼吸道感染主要致病菌耐药性的多中心研究[J]. 中华结核和呼吸杂志, 2015, 38( 1): 18- 22. DOI: 10.3760/cma.j.issn.1001-0939.2015.01.008.
[29]
CillonizC, AlbertRK, LiapikouA, et al. The Effect of Macrolide Resistance on the Presentation and Outcome of Patients Hospitalized for Streptococcus pneumoniae Pneumonia[J]. Am J Respir Crit Care Med, 2015, 191( 11): 1265- 1272. DOI: 10.1164/rccm.201502-0212OC.
[30]
YayanJ. The comparative development of elevated resistance to macrolides in community-acquired pneumonia caused by Streptococcus pneumoniae[J]. Drug Des Devel Ther, 2014, 8: 1733- 1743. DOI: 10.2147/DDDT.S71349.
[31]
TorresA, BlasiF, PeetermansWE, et al. The aetiology and antibiotic management of community-acquired pneumonia in adults in Europe: a literature review[J]. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis, 2014, 33( 7): 1065- 1079. DOI: 10.1007/s10096-014-2067-1.
[32]
TudoseC, BumbaceaD, BogdanM. Antibiotic resistance of S. pneumoniae and H. influenzae strains isolated from patients with community acquired respiratory tract infections. BACTRO multicenter, multidisciplinary study[J]. Pneumologia, 2011, 60( 1): 30- 35.
[33]
CastanheiraM, GalesAC, MendesRE, et al. Antimicrobial susceptibility of Streptococcus pneumoniae in Latin America: results from five years of the SENTRY Antimicrobial Surveillance Program[J]. Clin Microbiol Infect, 2004, 10( 7): 645- 651. DOI: 10.1111/j.1469-0691.2004.00872.x.
[34]
ZhanelGG, WolterKD, CalciuC, et al. Clinical cure rates in subjects treated with azithromycin for community-acquired respiratory tract infections caused by azithromycin-susceptible or azithromycin-resistant Streptococcus pneumoniae: analysis of Phase 3 clinical trial data[J]. J Antimicrob Chemother, 2014, 69( 10): 2835- 2840. DOI: 10.1093/jac/dku207.
[35]
尹玉东,曹彬,王辉,等. 北京地区成人社区获得性肺炎患者中肺炎支原体耐药情况的多中心调查[J]. 中华结核和呼吸杂志, 2013, 36( 12): 954- 958. DOI: 10.3760/cma.j.issn.1001-0939.2013.12.022.
[36]
CaoB, ZhaoCJ, YinYD, et al. High prevalence of macrolide resistance in Mycoplasma pneumoniae isolates from adult and adolescent patients with respiratory tract infection in China[J]. Clin Infect Dis, 2010, 51( 2): 189- 194. DOI: 10.1086/653535.
[37]
李晓明,汪丽珠,龚国富. 成人社区获得性肺炎中肺炎支原体的耐药性探讨[J]. 临床内科杂志, 2014, 31( 2): 113- 115. DOI: 10.3969/j.issn.1001-9057.2014.02.013.
[38]
Caballero JdeD, Del CampoR, Mafe MdelC, et al. First report of macrolide resistance in a Mycoplasma pneumoniae isolate causing community-acquired pneumonia in Spain[J]. Antimicrob Agents Chemother, 2014, 58( 2): 1265- 1266. DOI: 10.1128/AAC.02325-13.
[39]
PereyreS, CharronA, RenaudinH, et al. First report of macrolide-resistant strains and description of a novel nucleotide sequence variation in the P1 adhesin gene in Mycoplasma pneumoniae clinical strains isolated in France over 12 years[J]. J Clin Microbiol, 2007, 45( 11): 3534- 3539. DOI: 10.1128/JCM.01345-07.
[40]
DiazMH, BenitezAJ, WinchellJM. Investigations of Mycoplasma pneumoniae infections in the United States: trends in molecular typing and macrolide resistance from 2006 to 2013[J]. J Clin Microbiol, 2015, 53( 1): 124- 130. DOI: 10.1128/JCM.02597-14.
[41]
EshaghiA, MemariN, TangP, et al. Macrolide-resistant Mycoplasma pneumoniae in humans, Ontario, Canada, 2010-2011[J]. Emerg Infect Dis, 2013, 19( 9): 1525- 1527. DOI: 10.3201/eid1909.121466.
[42]
MiyashitaN, KawaiY, AkaikeH, et al. Macrolide-resistant Mycoplasma pneumoniae in adolescents with community-acquired pneumonia[J]. BMC Infect Dis, 2012, 12: 126. DOI: 10.1186/1471-2334-12-126.
[43]
DumkeR, Von BaumH, LuckPC, et al. Occurrence of macrolide-resistant Mycoplasma pneumoniae strains in Germany[J]. Clin Microbiol Infect, 2010, 16( 6): 613- 616. DOI: 10.1111/j.1469-0691.2009.02968.x.
[44]
LiuY, YeX, ZhangH, et al. Antimicrobial susceptibility of Mycoplasma pneumoniae isolates and molecular analysis of macrolide-resistant strains from Shanghai, China[J]. Antimicrob Agents Chemother, 2009, 53( 5): 2160- 2162. DOI: 10.1128/AAC.01684-08.
[45]
van der PollT, OpalSM. Pathogenesis, treatment, and prevention of pneumococcal pneumonia[J]. Lancet, 2009, 374( 9700): 1543- 1556. DOI: 10.1016/S0140-6736(09)61114-4.
[46]
MusherDM, ThornerAR. Community-acquired pneumonia[J]. N Engl J Med, 2014, 371( 17): 1619- 1628. DOI: 10.1056/NEJMra1312885.
[47]
HuijskensEG, KoopmansM, PalmenFM, et al. The value of signs and symptoms in differentiating between bacterial, viral and mixed aetiology in patients with community-acquired pneumonia[J]. J Med Microbiol, 2014, 63( Pt 3): 441- 452. DOI: 10.1099/jmm.0.067108-0.
[48]
PrasadR. Community acquired pneumonia: clinical manifestations[J]. J Assoc Physicians India, 2012, 60 Suppl: 10- 12.
[49]
HohenthalU, HurmeS, HeleniusH, et al. Utility of C-reactive protein in assessing the disease severity and complications of community-acquired pneumonia[J]. Clin Microbiol Infect, 2009, 15( 11): 1026- 1032. DOI: 10.1111/j.1469-0691.2009.02856.x.
[50]
Von BaumH, WelteT, MarreR, et al. Mycoplasma pneumoniae pneumonia revisited within the German Competence Network for community-acquired pneumonia (CAPNETZ)[J]. BMC Infect Dis, 2009, 9: 62. DOI: 10.1186/1471-2334-9-62.
[51]
MiyashitaN, MatsushimaT, OkaM, et al. The JRS guidelines for the management of community-acquired pneumonia in adults: an update and new recommendations[J]. Intern Med, 2006, 45( 7): 419- 428. DOI: 10.2169/internalmedicine.45.1691.
[52]
ShangguanZ, SunQ, ZhangM, et al. Mycoplasma pneumoniae infection in hospitalized adult patients with community-acquired pneumonia in China[J]. J Infect Dev Ctries, 2014, 8( 10): 1259- 1266. DOI: 10.3855/jidc.4721.
[53]
RuuskanenO, LahtiE, JenningsLC, et al. Viral pneumonia[J]. Lancet, 2011, 377( 9773): 1264- 1275. DOI: 10.1016/S0140-6736(10)61459-6.
[54]
JenningsLC, AndersonTP, BeynonKA, et al. Incidence and characteristics of viral community-acquired pneumonia in adults[J]. Thorax, 2008, 63( 1): 42- 48. DOI: 10.1136/thx.2006.075077.
[55]
ShileyKT, Van DeerlinVM, MillerWT. Chest CT features of community-acquired respiratory viral infections in adult inpatients with lower respiratory tract infections[J]. J Thorac Imaging, 2010, 25( 1): 68- 75. DOI: 10.1097/RTI.0b013e3181b0ba8b.
[56]
LimWS, Van Der EerdenMM, LaingR, et al. Defining community acquired pneumonia severity on presentation to hospital: an international derivation and validation study[J]. Thorax, 2003, 58( 5): 377- 382. DOI: 10.1136/thorax.58.5.377.
[57]
FineMJ, AubleTE, YealyDM, et al. A prediction rule to identify low-risk patients with community-acquired pneumonia[J]. N Engl J Med, 1997, 336( 4): 243- 250. DOI: 10.1056/NEJM199701233360402.
[58]
EspanaPP, CapelasteguiA, GorordoI, et al. Development and validation of a clinical prediction rule for severe community-acquired pneumonia[J]. Am J Respir Crit Care Med, 2006, 174( 11): 1249- 1256. DOI: 10.1164/rccm.200602-177OC.
[59]
CharlesPG, WolfeR, WhitbyM, et al. SMART-COP: a tool for predicting the need for intensive respiratory or vasopressor support in community-acquired pneumonia[J]. Clin Infect Dis, 2008, 47( 3): 375- 384. DOI: 10.1086/589754.
[60]
ChenCZ, FanPS, LinCC, et al. Repeated pneumonia severity index measurement after admission increases its predictive value for mortality in severe community-acquired pneumonia[J]. J Formos Med Assoc, 2009, 108( 3): 219- 223. DOI: 10.1016/S0929-6646(09)60055-3.
[61]
RiquelmeR, JimenezP, VidelaAJ, et al. Predicting mortality in hospitalized patients with 2009 H1N1 influenza pneumonia[J]. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis, 2011, 15( 4): 542- 546. DOI: 10.5588/ijtld.10.0539.
[62]
BjarnasonA, ThorleifsdottirG, LoveA, et al. Severity of influenza A 2009 (H1N1) pneumonia is underestimated by routine prediction rules. Results from a prospective, population-based study[J]. PLoS One, 2012, 7( 10): e46816. DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0046816.
[63]
MulrennanS, TemponeSS, LingIT, et al. Pandemic influenza (H1N1) 2009 pneumonia: CURB-65 score for predicting severity and nasopharyngeal sampling for diagnosis are unreliable[J]. PLoS One, 2010, 5( 9): e12849. DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0012849.
[64]
MullerMP, McgeerAJ, HassanK, et al. Evaluation of pneumonia severity and acute physiology scores to predict ICU admission and mortality in patients hospitalized for influenza[J]. PLoS One, 2010, 5( 3): e9563. DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0009563.
[65]
ShiSJ, LiH, LiuM, et al. Mortality prediction to hospitalized patients with influenza pneumonia: PO2/FiO2combined lymphocyte count is the answer[J]. Clin Respir J, 2015. DOI: 10.1111/crj.12346.
[66]
Julian-JimenezA, Gonzalez-CastilloJ, Candel GonzalezFJ. When, where and how should a patient with community acquired pneumonia be admitted?[J]. Rev Clin Esp (Barc), 2013, 213( 2): 99- 107. DOI: 10.1016/j.rce.2012.02.006.
[67]
SalihW, SchembriS, ChalmersJD. Simplification of the IDSA/ATS criteria for severe CAP using meta-analysis and observational data[J]. Eur Respir J, 2014, 43( 3): 842- 851. DOI: 10.1183/09031936.00089513.
[68]
National Clinical Guideline Centre(Uk). Pneumonia: Diagnosis and Management of Community- and Hospital-Acquired Pneumonia in Adults[EB/OL]. ( 2014) [ 2015-11-5]. https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/cg191/evidence/full-guideline-193389085.
[69]
TheerthakaraiR, El-HaleesW, IsmailM, et al. Nonvalue of the initial microbiological studies in the management of nonsevere community-acquired pneumonia[J]. Chest, 2001, 119( 1): 181- 184. DOI: 10.1378/chest.119.1.181.
[70]
EwigS, SchlochtermeierM, GokeN, et al. Applying sputum as a diagnostic tool in pneumonia: limited yield, minimal impact on treatment decisions[J]. Chest, 2002, 121( 5): 1486- 1492. DOI: 10.1378/chest.121.5.1486.
[71]
TarverRD, TeagueSD, HeitkampDE, et al. Radiology of community-acquired pneumonia[J]. Radiol Clin North Am, 2005, 43( 3): 497- 512. DOI: 10.1016/j.rcl.2005.02.005.
[72]
SharmaS, MaycherB, EschunG. Radiological imaging in pneumonia: recent innovations[J]. Curr Opin Pulm Med, 2007, 13( 3): 159- 169. DOI: 10.1097/MCP.06013e3280f3bff4.
[73]
ReynoldsJH, McdonaldG, AltonH, et al. Pneumonia in the immunocompetent patient[J]. Br J Radiol, 2010, 83( 996): 998- 1009. DOI: 10.1259/bjr/31200593.
[74]
NambuA, OzawaK, KobayashiN, et al. Imaging of community-acquired pneumonia: Roles of imaging examinations, imaging diagnosis of specific pathogens and discrimination from noninfectious diseases[J]. World J Radiol, 2014, 6( 10): 779- 793. DOI: 10.4329/wjr.v6.i10.779.
[75]
FroudarakisME. Diagnostic work-up of pleural effusions[J]. Respiration, 2008, 75( 1): 4- 13. DOI: 10.1159/000112221.
[76]
ChaSI, ShinKM, JeonKN, et al. Clinical relevance and characteristics of pleural effusion in patients with Mycoplasma pneumoniae pneumonia[J]. Scand J Infect Dis, 2012, 44( 10): 793- 797. DOI: 10.3109/00365548.2012.681696.
[77]
FalgueraM, CarratalaJ, Ruiz-GonzalezA, et al. Risk factors and outcome of community-acquired pneumonia due to Gram-negative bacilli[J]. Respirology, 2009, 14( 1): 105- 111. DOI: 10.1111/j.1440-1843.2008.01371.x.
[78]
LetourneauAR, IssaNC, BadenLR. Pneumonia in the immunocompromised host[J]. Curr Opin Pulm Med, 2014, 20( 3): 272- 279. DOI: 10.1097/MCP.0000000000000051.
[79]
FishmanJA. Infection in solid-organ transplant recipients[J]. N Engl J Med, 2007, 357( 25): 2601- 2614.
[80]
GodboleG, GantV. Respiratory tract infections in the immunocompromised[J]. Curr Opin Pulm Med, 2013, 19( 3): 244- 250. DOI: 10.1097/MCP.0b013e32835f82a9.
[81]
BaronEJ, MillerJM, WeinsteinMP, et al. A guide to utilization of the microbiology laboratory for diagnosis of infectious diseases: 2013 recommendations by the Infectious Diseases Society of America (IDSA) and the American Society for Microbiology (ASM)(a)[J]. Clin Infect Dis, 2013, 57( 4): e22- e121. DOI: 10.1093/cid/cit278.
[82]
SinclairA, XieX, TeltscherM, et al. Systematic review and meta-analysis of a urine-based pneumococcal antigen test for diagnosis of community-acquired pneumonia caused by Streptococcus pneumoniae[J]. J Clin Microbiol, 2013, 51( 7): 2303- 2310. DOI: 10.1128/JCM.00137-13.
[83]
HoritaN, MiyazawaN, KojimaR, et al. Sensitivity and specificity of the Streptococcus pneumoniae urinary antigen test for unconcentrated urine from adult patients with pneumonia: a meta-analysis[J]. Respirology, 2013, 18( 8): 1177- 1183. DOI: 10.1111/resp.12163.
[84]
中华医学会呼吸病学分会. 社区获得性肺炎诊断和治疗指南[J]. 中华结核和呼吸杂志, 2006, 29( 10): 651- 655. DOI: 10.3760/j.issn.1001-0939.2006.10.002.
[85]
World Health Organization. Factsheet on TB diagnostics.[EB/OL]. ( 2014-04-26) [ 2015-11-5]. http://www.who.int/tb/publications/tbDiagnostics_factsheet.pdf.
[86]
World Health Organization. Implementing tuberculosis diagnostics: policy framework.[EB/OL]. ( 2015) [ 2015-11-5]. http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/10665/162712/1/9789241508612_eng.pdf.
[87]
World Health Organization. Automated real-time nucleic acid amplification technology for rapid and simultaneous detection of tuberculosis and rifampicin resistance: Xpert MTB/RIF assay for the diagnosis of pulmonary and extrapulmonary TB in adults and children[EB/OL]. ( 2011) [ 2015-11-5]. http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/10665/112472/1/9789241506335_eng.pdf.
[88]
PaiM, DenkingerCM, KikSV, et al. Gamma interferon release assays for detection of Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection[J]. Clin Microbiol Rev, 2014, 27( 1): 3- 20. DOI: 10.1128/CMR.00034-13.
[89]
World Health Organization. Use of tuberculosis interferon-gamma release assays (IGRAs) in low- and middle-income countries: policy statement.[EB/OL]. ( 2011) [ 2015-11-5]. http://whqlibdoc.who.int/publications/2011/9789241502672_eng.pdf.
[90]
MercanteJW, WinchellJM. Current and emerging Legionella diagnostics for laboratory and outbreak investigations[J]. Clin Microbiol Rev, 2015, 28( 1): 95- 133. DOI: 10.1128/CMR.00029-14.
[91]
Us Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 2012 Nationally notifiable diseases and conditions and current case definitions.[EB/OL]. ( 2012) [ 2015-11-5]. http://stacks.cdc.gov/view/cdc/12088/.
[92]
European Centre for Disease Control and Prevention. ECDC SURVEILLANCE REPORT: Legionnaires' disease in Europe[EB/OL]. ( 2013) [ 2015-11-5]. http://ecdc.europa.eu/en/publications/Publications/legionnaires-disease-2015.pdf.
[93]
European Centre for Disease Control and Prevention. European Legionnaires' Disease Surveillance Network (ELDSNet): operating procedures. ECDC, Stockholm, Sweden.[EB/OL]. ( 2012) [ 2015-11-5]. http://dx.doi.org/10.2900/19185.
[94]
European Commission. Commission Implementing Decision of 8 August 2012 amending Decision 2002/253/EC laying down case definitions for reporting communicable diseases to the Community network under Decision No 2119/98/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council[EB/OL]. ( 2012) [ 2015-11-5]. http://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?qid=1443088458558&uri=CELEX:32012D0506.
[95]
ZumlaA, Al-TawfiqJA, EnneVI, et al. Rapid point of care diagnostic tests for viral and bacterial respiratory tract infections--needs, advances, and future prospects[J]. Lancet Infect Dis, 2014, 14( 11): 1123- 1135. DOI: 10.1016/S1473-3099(14)70827-8.
[96]
ShimadaT, NoguchiY, JacksonJL, et al. Systematic review and metaanalysis: urinary antigen tests for Legionellosis[J]. Chest, 2009, 136( 6): 1576- 1585. DOI: 10.1378/chest.08-2602.
[97]
LoensK, GoossensH, IevenM. Acute respiratory infection due to Mycoplasma pneumoniae: current status of diagnostic methods[J]. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis, 2010, 29( 9): 1055- 1069. DOI: 10.1007/s10096-010-0975-2.
[98]
WaitesKB, TalkingtonDF. Mycoplasma pneumoniae and its role as a human pathogen[J]. Clin Microbiol Rev, 2004, 17( 4): 697- 728. DOI: 10.1128/CMR.17.4.697-728.2004.
[99]
DowellSF, PeelingRW, BomanJ, et al. Standardizing Chlamydia pneumoniae assays: recommendations from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (USA) and the Laboratory Centre for Disease Control (Canada)[J]. Clin Infect Dis, 2001, 33( 4): 492- 503. DOI: 10.1086/322632.
[100]
KumarS, HammerschlagMR. Acute respiratory infection due to Chlamydia pneumoniae: current status of diagnostic methods[J]. Clin Infect Dis, 2007, 44( 4): 568- 576. DOI: 10.1086/511076.
[101]
卫生部流行性感冒诊断与治疗指南编撰专家组. 流行性感冒诊断与治疗指南(2011年版)[J]. 中华结核和呼吸杂志, 2011, 34( 10): 725- 734. DOI: 10.3760/cma.j.issn.1001-0939.2011.10.004.
[102]
Us Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Interim recommendations for clinical use of influenza diagnostic tests during the 2009-10 influenza season[EB/OL]. ( 2009) [ 2015-11-5]. http://www.cdc.gov/h1n1flu/guidance/diagnostic_tests.htm.
[103]
FalseyAR, WalshEE. Viral pneumonia in older adults[J]. Clin Infect Dis, 2006, 42( 4): 518- 524. DOI: 10.1086/499955.
[104]
De PauwB, WalshTJ, DonnellyJP, et al. Revised definitions of invasive fungal disease from the European Organization for Research and Treatment of Cancer/Invasive Fungal Infections Cooperative Group and the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases Mycoses Study Group (EORTC/MSG) Consensus Group[J]. Clin Infect Dis, 2008, 46( 12): 1813- 1821. DOI: 10.1086/588660.
[105]
ArvanitisM, AnagnostouT, FuchsBB, et al. Molecular and nonmolecular diagnostic methods for invasive fungal infections[J]. Clin Microbiol Rev, 2014, 27( 3): 490- 526. DOI: 10.1128/CMR.00091-13.
[106]
HustonSM, ModyCH. Cryptococcosis: an emerging respiratory mycosis[J]. Clin Chest Med, 2009, 30( 2): 253- 264. DOI: 10.1016/j.ccm.2009.02.006.
[107]
MarchettiO, LamothF, MikulskaM, et al. ECIL recommendations for the use of biological markers for the diagnosis of invasive fungal diseases in leukemic patients and hematopoietic SCT recipients[J]. Bone Marrow Transplant, 2012, 47( 6): 846- 854. DOI: 10.1038/bmt.2011.178.
[108]
PersatF, RanqueS, DerouinF, et al. Contribution of the (1-->3)-beta-D-glucan assay for diagnosis of invasive fungal infections[J]. J Clin Microbiol, 2008, 46( 3): 1009- 1013. DOI: 10.1128/JCM.02091-07.
[109]
PfeifferCD, FineJP, SafdarN. Diagnosis of invasive aspergillosis using a galactomannan assay: a meta-analysis[J]. Clin Infect Dis, 2006, 42( 10): 1417- 1427. DOI: 10.1086/503427.
[110]
许炽熛. 寄生虫病实验诊断的进展[J]. 中华检验医学杂志, 2006, 29( 7): 665- 668. DOI: 10.3760/j.issn.1009-9158.2006.07.037.
[111]
Robert-GangneuxF, DardeML. Epidemiology of and diagnostic strategies for toxoplasmosis[J]. Clin Microbiol Rev, 2012, 25( 2): 264- 296. DOI: 10.1128/CMR.05013-11.
[112]
李冕,尹昆,闫歌. 弓形虫病的诊断技术及其研究进展[J]. 中国病原生物学杂志, 2011, 6( 12): 942- 944. DOI: 10.13350/j.cjpb.2011.12.026.
[113]
张斗星. 弓形虫病实验诊断方法应用进展[J]. 热带病与寄生虫学, 2010, 8( 1): 119- 123. DOI: 10.3969/j.issn.1672-2302.2010.02.021.
[114]
WongSS, FungKS, ChauS, et al. Molecular diagnosis in clinical parasitology: when and why?[J]. Exp Biol Med (Maywood), 2014, 239( 11): 1443- 1460. DOI: 10.1177/1535370214523880.
[115]
CalboE, GarauJ. Application of pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics to antimicrobial therapy of community-acquired respiratory tract infections[J]. Respiration, 2005, 72( 6): 561- 571. DOI: 10.1159/000089567.
[116]
OwensRC, AmbrosePG. Antimicrobial stewardship and the role of pharmacokinetics-pharmacodynamics in the modern antibiotic era[J]. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis, 2007, 57( 3 Suppl): 77S- 83S. DOI: 10.1016/j.diagmicrobio.2006.12.012.
[117]
HouckPM, BratzlerDW, NsaW, et al. Timing of antibiotic administration and outcomes for medicare patients hospitalized with community-acquired pneumonia[J]. Arch Intern Med, 2004, 164( 6): 637- 644. DOI: 10.1001/archinte.164.6.637.
[118]
YahavD, LeiboviciL, GoldbergE, et al. Time to first antibiotic dose for patients hospitalised with community-acquired pneumonia[J]. Int J Antimicrob Agents, 2013, 41( 5): 410- 413. DOI: 10.1016/j.ijantimicag.2013.01.008.
[119]
BaderMS, AbouchehadeKA, YiY, et al. Antibiotic administration longer than eight hours after triage and mortality of community-acquired pneumonia in patients with diabetes mellitus[J]. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis, 2011, 30( 7): 881- 886. DOI: 10.1007/s10096-011-1171-8.
[120]
MenendezR, TorresA, ReyesS, et al. Initial management of pneumonia and sepsis: factors associated with improved outcome[J]. Eur Respir J, 2012, 39( 1): 156- 162. DOI: 10.1183/09031936.00188710.
[121]
PakhaleS, MulpuruS, VerheijTJ, et al. Antibiotics for community-acquired pneumonia in adult outpatients[J]. Cochrane Database Syst Rev, 2014, 10: CD002109. DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD002109.pub4.
[122]
WoodheadM, BlasiF, EwigS, et al. Guidelines for the management of adult lower respiratory tract infections--full version[J]. Clin Microbiol Infect, 2011, 17 Suppl 6: E1- 59. DOI: 10.1111/j.1469-0691.2011.03672.x.
[123]
MorimotoT, KoyamaH, ShimboT, et al. Cost-effectiveness analysis of ambulatory treatment for adult patients with community-acquired pneumonia: according to Japanese Respiratory Society guidelines[J]. Nihon Kokyuki Gakkai Zasshi, 2002, 40( 1): 17- 25.
[124]
MartinM, QuiliciS, FileT, et al. Cost-effectiveness of empirical prescribing of antimicrobials in community-acquired pneumonia in three countries in the presence of resistance[J]. J Antimicrob Chemother, 2007, 59( 5): 977- 989. DOI: 10.1093/jac/dkm033.
[125]
AilaniRK, AgastyaG, AilaniRK, et al. Doxycycline is a cost-effective therapy for hospitalized patients with community-acquired pneumonia[J]. Arch Intern Med, 1999, 159( 3): 266- 270. DOI: 10.1001/archinte.159.3.266.
[126]
MokabberiR, HaftbaradaranA, RavakhahK. Doxycycline vs. levofloxacin in the treatment of community-acquired pneumonia[J]. J Clin Pharm Ther, 2010, 35( 2): 195- 200. DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2710.2009.01073.x.
[127]
TehB, GraysonML, JohnsonPD, et al. Doxycycline vs. macrolides in combination therapy for treatment of community-acquired pneumonia[J]. Clin Microbiol Infect, 2012, 18( 4): E71- 73. DOI: 10.1111/j.1469-0691.2011.03759.x.
[128]
范红,刘思彤,童翔. 呼吸喹诺酮类与β内酰胺类联合大环内酯类治疗非ICU住院社区获得性肺炎患者有效性和安全性的系统评价[J]. 中国循证医学杂志, 2015, 15( 7): 802- 810. DOI: 10.7507/1672-2531.20150137.
[129]
WangH, ChenM, XuY, et al. Antimicrobial susceptibility of bacterial pathogens associated with community-acquired respiratory tract infections in Asia: report from the Community-Acquired Respiratory Tract Infection Pathogen Surveillance (CARTIPS) study, 2009-2010[J]. Int J Antimicrob Agents, 2011, 38( 5): 376- 383. DOI: 10.1016/j.ijantimicag.2011.06.015.
[130]
RuizM, EwigS, MarcosMA, et al. Etiology of community-acquired pneumonia: impact of age, comorbidity, and severity[J]. Am J Respir Crit Care Med, 1999, 160( 2): 397- 405. DOI: 10.1164/ajrccm.160.2.9808045.
[131]
CillonizC, EwigS, FerrerM, et al. Community-acquired polymicrobial pneumonia in the intensive care unit: aetiology and prognosis[J]. Crit Care, 2011, 15( 5): R209. DOI: 10.1186/cc10444.
[132]
ArancibiaF, CortesCP, ValdesM, et al. Importance of Legionella pneumophila in the etiology of severe community-acquired pneumonia in Santiago, Chile[J]. Chest, 2014, 145( 2): 290- 296. DOI: 10.1378/chest.13-0162.
[133]
IshiguroT, TakayanagiN, YamaguchiS, et al. Etiology and factors contributing to the severity and mortality of community-acquired pneumonia[J]. Intern Med, 2013, 52( 3): 317- 324. DOI: 10.2169/internalmedicine.52.8830.
[134]
IshidaT, TachibanaH, ItoA, et al. Clinical characteristics of severe community-acquired pneumonia among younger patients: an analysis of 18 years at a community hospital[J]. J Infect Chemother, 2014, 20( 8): 471- 476. DOI: 10.1016/j.jiac.2014.04.005.
[135]
SunK, MetzgerDW. Influenza infection suppresses NADPH oxidase-dependent phagocytic bacterial clearance and enhances susceptibility to secondary methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus infection[J]. J Immunol, 2014, 192( 7): 3301- 3307. DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1303049.
[136]
Ortiz-RuizG, VetterN, IsaacsR, et al. Ertapenem versus ceftriaxone for the treatment of community-acquired pneumonia in adults: combined analysis of two multicentre randomized, double-blind studies[J]. J Antimicrob Chemother, 2004, 53( Suppl 2): ii59- 66. DOI: 10.1093/jac/dkh207.
[137]
LeroyO, SauxP, BedosJP, et al. Comparison of levofloxacin and cefotaxime combined with ofloxacin for ICU patients with community-acquired pneumonia who do not require vasopressors[J]. Chest, 2005, 128( 1): 172- 183. DOI: 10.1378/chest.128.1.172.
[138]
YuanX, LiangBB, WangR, et al. Treatment of community-acquired pneumonia with moxifloxacin: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials[J]. J Chemother, 2012, 24( 5): 257- 267. DOI: 10.1179/1973947812Y.0000000028.
[139]
FreiCR, LabrecheMJ, AttridgeRT. Fluoroquinolones in community-acquired pneumonia: guide to selection and appropriate use[J]. Drugs, 2011, 71( 6): 757- 770. DOI: 10.2165/11585430-000000000-00000.
[140]
ThiemU, HeppnerHJ, PientkaL. Elderly patients with community-acquired pneumonia: optimal treatment strategies[J]. Drugs Aging, 2011, 28( 7): 519- 537. DOI: 10.2165/11591980-000000000-00000.
[141]
YamasakiK, KawanamiT, YateraK, et al. Significance of anaerobes and oral bacteria in community-acquired pneumonia[J]. PLoS One, 2013, 8( 5): e63103. DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0063103.
[142]
Japanese Respiratory Society. Aspiration pneumonia[J]. Respirology, 2009, 14( Suppl 2): S59- 64. DOI: 10.1111/j.1440-1843.2009.01578.x.
[143]
PetroianniA, CeccarelliD, ContiV, et al. Aspiration pneumonia. Pathophysiological aspects, prevention and management. A review[J]. Panminerva Med, 2006, 48( 4): 231- 239.
[144]
JohnsonJL, HirschCS. Aspiration pneumonia. Recognizing and managing a potentially growing disorder[J]. Postgrad Med, 2003, 113( 3): 99-102, 105-106, 111-112. DOI: 10.3810/pgm.2003.03.1390.
[145]
KadowakiM, DemuraY, MizunoS, et al. Reappraisal of clindamycin Ⅳ monotherapy for treatment of mild-to-moderate aspiration pneumonia in elderly patients[J]. Chest, 2005, 127( 4): 1276- 1282. DOI: 10.1016/S0012-3692(15)34477-9.
[146]
AlleweltM, SchulerP, Bolcskei PL, et al. Ampicillin + sulbactam vs clindamycin +/- cephalosporin for the treatment of aspiration pneumonia and primary lung abscess[J]. Clin Microbiol Infect, 2004, 10( 2): 163- 170. DOI: 10.1111/j.1469-0691.2004.00774.x.
[147]
OttSR, AlleweltM, LorenzJ, et al. Moxifloxacin vs ampicillin/sulbactam in aspiration pneumonia and primary lung abscess[J]. Infection, 2008, 36( 1): 23- 30. DOI: 10.1007/s15010-007-7043-6.
[148]
SunT, SunL, WangR, et al. Clinical efficacy and safety of moxifloxacin versus levofloxacin plus metronidazole for community-acquired pneumonia with aspiration factors[J]. Chin Med J (Engl), 2014, 127( 7): 1201- 1205. DOI: 10.3760/cma.j.issn.0366-6999.20131635.
[149]
MalloyAM, CamposJM. Extended-spectrum beta-lactamases: a brief clinical update[J]. Pediatr Infect Dis J, 2011, 30( 12): 1092- 1093. DOI: 10.1097/INF.0b013e31823c0e9d.
[150]
PatersonDL, BonomoRA. Extended-spectrum beta-lactamases: a clinical update[J]. Clin Microbiol Rev, 2005, 18( 4): 657- 686. DOI: 10.1055/s-2003-37919.
[151]
EinhornAE, NeuhauserMM, BeardenDT, et al. Extended-spectrum beta-lactamases: frequency, risk factors, and outcomes[J]. Pharmacotherapy, 2002, 22( 1): 14- 20. DOI: 10.1592/phco.22.1.14.33497.
[152]
KerneisS, ValadeS, GeriG, et al. Cefoxitin as a carbapenem-sparing antibiotic for infections caused by extended-spectrum beta-lactamase-producing Escherichia coli and Klebsiella pneumoniae[J]. Infect Dis (Lond), 2015, 47( 11): 789- 795. DOI: 10.3109/23744235.2015.1062133.
[153]
MatsumuraY, YamamotoM, NagaoM, et al. Multicenter Retrospective Study of Cefmetazole and Flomoxef for Treatment of Extended-Spectrum-beta-Lactamase-Producing Escherichia coli Bacteremia[J]. Antimicrob Agents Chemother, 2015, 59( 9): 5107- 5113. DOI: 10.1128/AAC.00701-15.
[154]
胡付品,朱德妹,汪复,等. 2013年中国CHINET细菌耐药性监测[J]. 中国感染与化疗杂志, 2014, 14( 05): 365- 374. DOI: 10.3969/j.issn.1009-7708.2014.05.001
[155]
LeeN, LeoYS, CaoB, et al. Neuraminidase inhibitors, superinfection and corticosteroids affect survival of influenza patients[J]. Eur Respir J, 2015, 45( 6): 1642- 1652. DOI: 10.1183/09031936.00169714.
[156]
FioreAE, FryA, ShayD, et al. Antiviral agents for the treatment and chemoprophylaxis of influenza-recommendations of the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP)[J]. MMWR Recomm Rep, 2011, 60( 1): 1- 24.
[157]
LeeN, ChoiKW, ChanPK, et al. Outcomes of adults hospitalised with severe influenza[J]. Thorax, 2010, 65( 6): 510- 515. DOI: 10.1136/thx.2009.130799.
[158]
Higuera IglesiasAL, KudoK, ManabeT, et al. Reducing occurrence and severity of pneumonia due to pandemic H1N1 2009 by early oseltamivir administration: a retrospective study in Mexico[J]. PLoS One, 2011, 6( 7): e21838. DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0021838.
[159]
YangSG, CaoB, LiangLR, et al. Antiviral therapy and outcomes of patients with pneumonia caused by influenza A pandemic (H1N1) virus[J]. PLoS One, 2012, 7( 1): e29652. DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0029652.
[160]
MuthuriSG, VenkatesanS, MylesPR, et al. Effectiveness of neuraminidase inhibitors in reducing mortality in patients admitted to hospital with influenza A H1N1pdm09 virus infection: a meta-analysis of individual participant data[J]. Lancet Respir Med, 2014, 2( 5): 395- 404. DOI: 10.1016/S2213-2600(14)70041-4.
[161]
MorensDM, TaubenbergerJK, FauciAS. Predominant role of bacterial pneumonia as a cause of death in pandemic influenza: implications for pandemic influenza preparedness[J]. J Infect Dis, 2008, 198( 7): 962- 970. DOI: 10.1086/591708.
[162]
RiceTW, RubinsonL, UyekiTM, et al. Critical illness from 2009 pandemic influenza A virus and bacterial coinfection in the United States[J]. Crit Care Med, 2012, 40( 5): 1487- 1498. DOI: 10.1097/CCM.0b013e3182416f23.
[163]
WangXY, KilgorePE, LimKA, et al. Influenza and bacterial pathogen coinfections in the 20th century[J]. Interdiscip Perspect Infect Dis, 2011; 2011: 146376. DOI: 10.1155/2011/146376.
[164]
ScaleraNM, FileTM. How long should we treat community-acquired pneumonia?[J]. Curr Opin Infect Dis, 2007, 20( 2): 177- 181. DOI: 10.1097/QCO.0b013e3280555072.
[165]
PinzoneMR, CacopardoB, AbboL, et al. Duration of antimicrobial therapy in community acquired pneumonia: less is more[J]. Scientific World Journal, 2014, 2014: 759138. DOI: 10.1155/2014/759138.
[166]
El MoussaouiR, De BorgieCA, Van Den BroekP, et al. Effectiveness of discontinuing antibiotic treatment after three days versus eight days in mild to moderate-severe community acquired pneumonia: randomised, double blind study[J]. BMJ, 2006, 332( 7554): 1355. DOI: 10.1136/bmj.332.7554.1355.
[167]
EcclesS, PincusC, HigginsB, et al. Diagnosis and management of community and hospital acquired pneumonia in adults: summary of NICE guidance[J]. BMJ, 2014, 349: g6722. DOI: 10.1136/bmj.g6722.
[168]
ChawlaS, DemuroJP. Current controversies in the support of sepsis[J]. Curr Opin Crit Care, 2014, 20( 6): 681- 684. DOI: 10.1097/MCC.0000000000000154.
[169]
BrittonS, BejstedtM, VedinL. Chest physiotherapy in primary pneumonia[J]. Br Med J (Clin Res Ed), 1985, 290( 6483): 1703- 1704. DOI: 10.1136/bmj.290.6483.1703.
[170]
MundyLM, LeetTL, DarstK, et al. Early mobilization of patients hospitalized with community-acquired pneumonia[J]. Chest, 2003, 124( 3): 883- 889. DOI: 10.1378/chest.124.3.883.
[171]
BjorkqvistM, WibergB, BodinL, et al. Bottle-blowing in hospital-treated patients with community-acquired pneumonia[J]. Scand J Infect Dis, 1997, 29( 1): 77- 82. DOI: 10.3109/00365549709008669.
[172]
MortonB, PenningtonSH, GordonSB. Immunomodulatory adjuvant therapy in severe community-acquired pneumonia[J]. Expert Rev Respir Med, 2014, 8( 5): 587- 596. DOI: 10.1586/17476348.2014.927736.
[173]
BlotSI, RodriguezA, Sole-ViolanJ, et al. Effects of delayed oxygenation assessment on time to antibiotic delivery and mortality in patients with severe community-acquired pneumonia[J]. Crit Care Med, 2007, 35( 11): 2509- 2514. DOI: 10.1097/01.CCM.0000287587.43801.9C.
[174]
O'driscollBR, HowardLS, DavisonAG. BTS guideline for emergency oxygen use in adult patients[J]. Thorax, 2008, 63( Suppl 6): vi1- 68. DOI: 10.1136/thx.2008.102947.
[175]
FratJP, ThilleAW, MercatA, et al. High-flow oxygen through nasal cannula in acute hypoxemic respiratory failure[J]. N Engl J Med, 2015, 372( 23): 2185- 2196. DOI: 10.1056/NEJMoa1503326.
[176]
PetersSG, HoletsSR, GayPC. High-flow nasal cannula therapy in do-not-intubate patients with hypoxemic respiratory distress[J]. Respir Care, 2013, 58( 4): 597- 600. DOI: 10.4187/respcare.01887.
[177]
FerrerM, EsquinasA, LeonM, et al. Noninvasive ventilation in severe hypoxemic respiratory failure: a randomized clinical trial[J]. Am J Respir Crit Care Med, 2003, 168( 12): 1438- 1444. DOI: 10.1164/rccm.200301-072OC.
[178]
BrambillaAM, AlibertiS, PrinaE, et al. Helmet CPAP vs. oxygen therapy in severe hypoxemic respiratory failure due to pneumonia[J]. Intensive Care Med, 2014, 40( 7): 942- 949. DOI: 10.1007/s00134-014-3325-5.
[179]
ZhanQ, SunB, LiangL, et al. Early use of noninvasive positive pressure ventilation for acute lung injury: a multicenter randomized controlled trial[J]. Crit Care Med, 2012, 40( 2): 455- 460. DOI: 10.1097/CCM.0b013e318232d75e.
[180]
ConfalonieriM, PotenaA, CarboneG, et al. Acute respiratory failure in patients with severe community-acquired pneumonia. A prospective randomized evaluation of noninvasive ventilation[J]. Am J Respir Crit Care Med, 1999, 160( 5 Pt 1): 1585- 1591. DOI: 10.1164/ajrccm.162.2.16223c.
[181]
刘振千,冯华松,姜义,等. 无创正压通气对老年社区获得性肺炎所致呼吸衰竭的疗效分析[J]. 中华老年医学杂志, 2013, 32( 10): 1062- 1065. DOI: 10.3760/cma.j.issn.0254-9026.2013.10.010.
[182]
DelclauxC, L'herE, AlbertiC, et al. Treatment of acute hypoxemic nonhypercapnic respiratory insufficiency with continuous positive airway pressure delivered by a face mask: a randomized controlled trial[J]. JAMA, 2000, 284( 18): 2352- 2360. DOI: 10.1001/jama.284.18.2352.
[183]
CosentiniR, BrambillaAM, AlibertiS, et al. Helmet continuous positive airway pressure vs oxygen therapy to improve oxygenation in community-acquired pneumonia: a randomized, controlled trial[J]. Chest, 2010, 138( 1): 114- 120. DOI: 10.1378/chest.09-2290.
[184]
AntonelliM, ContiG, MoroML, et al. Predictors of failure of noninvasive positive pressure ventilation in patients with acute hypoxemic respiratory failure: a multi-center study[J]. Intensive Care Med, 2001, 27( 11): 1718- 1728. DOI: 10.1007/s00134-001-1114-4.
[185]
CarrilloA, Gonzalez-DiazG, FerrerM, et al. Non-invasive ventilation in community-acquired pneumonia and severe acute respiratory failure[J]. Intensive Care Med, 2012, 38( 3): 458- 466. DOI: 10.1007/s00134-012-2475-6.
[186]
Ventilation with lower tidal volumes as compared with traditional tidal volumes for acute lung injury and the acute respiratory distress syndrome. The Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome Network[J]. N Engl J Med, 2000, 342( 18): 1301- 1308.
[187]
EisnerMD, ThompsonT, HudsonLD, et al. Efficacy of low tidal volume ventilation in patients with different clinical risk factors for acute lung injury and the acute respiratory distress syndrome[J]. Am J Respir Crit Care Med, 2001, 164( 2): 231- 236.
[188]
BartlettRH, RoloffDW, CusterJR, et al. Extracorporeal life support: the University of Michigan experience[J]. JAMA, 2000, 283( 7): 904- 908.
[189]
MorrisAH, WallaceCJ, MenloveRL, et al. Randomized clinical trial of pressure-controlled inverse ratio ventilation and extracorporeal CO2 removal for adult respiratory distress syndrome[J]. Am J Respir Crit Care Med, 1994, 149( 2 Pt 1): 295- 305.
[190]
ZapolWM, SniderMT, HillJD, et al. Extracorporeal membrane oxygenation in severe acute respiratory failure. A randomized prospective study[J]. JAMA, 1979, 242( 20): 2193- 2196.
[191]
PeekGJ, MugfordM, TiruvoipatiR, et al. Efficacy and economic assessment of conventional ventilatory support versus extracorporeal membrane oxygenation for severe adult respiratory failure (CESAR): a multicentre randomised controlled trial[J]. Lancet, 2009, 374( 9698): 1351- 1363. DOI: 10.1016/S0140-6736(09)61069-2.
[192]
BrodieD, BacchettaM. Extracorporeal membrane oxygenation for ARDS in adults[J]. N Engl J Med, 2011, 365( 20): 1905- 1914. DOI: 10.1056/NEJMct1103720.
[193]
OmraniAS, SaadMM, BaigK, et al. Ribavirin and interferon alfa-2a for severe Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus infection: a retrospective cohort study[J]. Lancet Infect Dis, 2014, 14( 11): 1090- 1095. DOI: 10.1016/S1473-3099(14)70920-X.
[194]
ConfalonieriM, UrbinoR, PotenaA, et al. Hydrocortisone infusion for severe community-acquired pneumonia: a preliminary randomized study[J]. Am J Respir Crit Care Med, 2005, 171( 3): 242- 248.
[195]
TorresA, SibilaO, FerrerM, et al. Effect of corticosteroids on treatment failure among hospitalized patients with severe community-acquired pneumonia and high inflammatory response: a randomized clinical trial[J]. JAMA, 2015, 313( 7): 677- 686. DOI: 10.1001/jama.2015.88.
[196]
SabryNA, OmarEE-D. Corticosteroids and ICU Course of Community Acquired Pneumonia in Egyptian Settings[J]. Pharmacol Pharmacy, 2011, ( 2): 73- 81. DOI: 10.4236/pp.2011.22009.
[197]
DellingerRP, LevyMM, RhodesA, et al. Surviving sepsis campaign: international guidelines for management of severe sepsis and septic shock: 2012[J]. Crit Care Med, 2013, 41( 2): 580- 637. DOI: 10.1097/CCM.0b013e31827e83af.
[198]
NieW, ZhangY, ChengJ, et al. Corticosteroids in the treatment of community-acquired pneumonia in adults: a meta-analysis[J]. PLoS One, 2012, 7( 10): e47926. DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0047926.
[199]
陈丽萍,陈军辉,陈颖,等. 糖皮质激素治疗社区获得性肺炎疗效及安全性Meta分析[J]. 中华急诊医学杂志, 2014, 23( 1): 65- 70. DOI: 10.3760/cma.j.issn.1671-0282.2014.01.016.
[200]
OsterG, BergerA, EdelsbergJ, et al. Initial treatment failure in non-ICU community-acquired pneumonia: risk factors and association with length of stay, total hospital charges, and mortality[J]. J Med Econ, 2013, 16( 6): 809- 819. DOI: 10.3111/13696998.2013.794805.
[201]
PattersonCM, LoebingerMR. Community acquired pneumonia: assessment and treatment[J]. Clin Med, 2012, 12( 3): 283- 286. DOI: 10.7861/clinmedicine.12-3-283.
[202]
BrunsAH, OosterheertJJ, ProkopM, et al. Patterns of resolution of chest radiograph abnormalities in adults hospitalized with severe community-acquired pneumonia[J]. Clin Infect Dis, 2007, 45( 8): 983- 991. DOI: 10.1086/521893.
[203]
BrunsAH, OosterheertJJ, El MoussaouiR, et al. Pneumonia recovery: discrepancies in perspectives of the radiologist, physician and patient[J]. J Gen Intern Med, 2010, 25( 3): 203- 206. DOI: 10.1007/s11606-009-1182-7.
[204]
EwigS, WoodheadM, TorresA. Towards a sensible comprehension of severe community-acquired pneumonia[J]. Intensive Care Med, 2011, 37( 2): 214- 223. DOI: 10.1007/s00134-010-2077-0.
[205]
MenendezR, TorresA. Treatment failure in community-acquired pneumonia[J]. Chest, 2007, 132( 4): 1348- 1355. DOI: 10.1378/chest.06-1995.
[206]
RosonB, CarratalaJ, Fernandez-SabeN, et al. Causes and factors associated with early failure in hospitalized patients with community-acquired pneumonia[J]. Arch Intern Med, 2004, 164( 5): 502- 508. DOI: 10.1001/archinte.164.5.502.
[207]
ChalmersJD, SinganayagamA, HillAT. C-reactive protein is an independent predictor of severity in community-acquired pneumonia[J]. Am J Med, 2008, 121( 3): 219- 225. DOI: 10.1016/j.amjmed.2007.10.033.
[208]
MenendezR, CavalcantiM, ReyesS, et al. Markers of treatment failure in hospitalised community acquired pneumonia[J]. Thorax, 2008, 63( 5): 447- 452. DOI: 10.1136/thx.2007.086785.
[209]
BrunsAH, OosterheertJJ, HakE, et al. Usefulness of consecutive C-reactive protein measurements in follow-up of severe community-acquired pneumonia[J]. Eur Respir J, 2008, 32( 3): 726- 732. DOI: 10.1183/09031936.00003608.
[210]
MenendezR, MartinezR, ReyesS, et al. Stability in community-acquired pneumonia: one step forward with markers?[J]. Thorax, 2009, 64( 11): 987- 992. DOI: 10.1136/thx.2009.118612.
[211]
StralinK, TornqvistE, KaltoftMS, et al. Etiologic diagnosis of adult bacterial pneumonia by culture and PCR applied to respiratory tract samples[J]. J Clin Microbiol, 2006, 44( 2): 643- 645. DOI: 10.1128/JCM.44.2.643-645.2006.
[212]
LidmanC, BurmanLG, LagergrenA, et al. Limited value of routine microbiological diagnostics in patients hospitalized for community-acquired pneumonia[J]. Scand J Infect Dis, 2002, 34( 12): 873- 879. DOI: 10.1080/0036554021000026967.
[213]
CampbellSG, MarrieTJ, AnsteyR, et al. The contribution of blood cultures to the clinical management of adult patients admitted to the hospital with community-acquired pneumonia: a prospective observational study[J]. Chest, 2003, 123( 4): 1142- 1150. DOI: 10.1378/chest.123.4.1142.
[214]
JohanssonN, KalinM, GiskeCG, et al. Quantitative detection of Streptococcus pneumoniae from sputum samples with real-time quantitative polymerase chain reaction for etiologic diagnosis of community-acquired pneumonia[J]. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis, 2008, 60( 3): 255- 261. DOI: 10.1016/j.diagmicrobio.2007.10.011.
[215]
StralinK. Usefulness of aetiological tests for guiding antibiotic therapy in community-acquired pneumonia[J]. Int J Antimicrob Agents, 2008, 31( 1): 3- 11. DOI: 10.1016/j.ijantimicag.2007.06.037.
[216]
PaganinF, LilienthalF, BourdinA, et al. Severe community-acquired pneumonia: assessment of microbial aetiology as mortality factor[J]. Eur Respir J, 2004, 24( 5): 779- 785. DOI: 10.1183/09031936.04.00119503.
[217]
MeterskyML, MaA, BratzlerDW, et al. Predicting bacteremia in patients with community-acquired pneumonia[J]. Am J Respir Crit Care Med, 2004, 169( 3): 342- 347. DOI: 10.1164/rccm.200309-1248OC.
[218]
RosonB, Fernandez-SabeN, CarratalaJ, et al. Contribution of a urinary antigen assay (Binax NOW) to the early diagnosis of pneumococcal pneumonia[J]. Clin Infect Dis, 2004, 38( 2): 222- 226. DOI: 10.1086/380639.
[219]
SmithMD, DerringtonP, EvansR, et al. Rapid diagnosis of bacteremic pneumococcal infections in adults by using the Binax NOW Streptococcus pneumoniae urinary antigen test: a prospective, controlled clinical evaluation[J]. J Clin Microbiol, 2003, 41( 7): 2810- 2813. DOI: 10.1128/JCM.41.7.2810-2813.2003.
[220]
GutierrezF, MasiaM, RodriguezJC, et al. Evaluation of the immunochromatographic Binax NOW assay for detection of Streptococcus pneumoniae urinary antigen in a prospective study of community-acquired pneumonia in Spain[J]. Clin Infect Dis, 2003, 36( 3): 286- 292. DOI: 10.1086/345852.
[221]
MeterskyML. Is the lateral decubitus radiograph necessary for the management of a parapneumonic pleural effusion?[J]. Chest, 2003, 124( 3): 1129- 1132. DOI: 10.1378/chest.124.3.1129.
[222]
MenendezR, TorresA, Rodriguez De CastroF, et al. Reaching stability in community-acquired pneumonia: the effects of the severity of disease, treatment, and the characteristics of patients[J]. Clin Infect Dis, 2004, 39( 12): 1783- 1790. DOI: 10.1086/426028.
[223]
AthanassaZ, MakrisG, DimopoulosG, et al. Early switch to oral treatment in patients with moderate to severe community-acquired pneumonia: a meta-analysis[J]. Drugs, 2008, 68( 17): 2469- 2481. DOI: 10.2165/0003495-200868170-00005.
[224]
ArancibiaF, EwigS, MartinezJA, et al. Antimicrobial treatment failures in patients with community-acquired pneumonia: causes and prognostic implications[J]. Am J Respir Crit Care Med, 2000, 162( 1): 154- 160. DOI: 10.1164/ajrccm.162.1.9907023.
[225]
SialerS, LiapikouA, TorresA. What is the best approach to the nonresponding patient with community-acquired pneumonia?[J]. Infect Dis Clin North Am, 2013, 27( 1): 189- 203. DOI: 10.1016/j.idc.2012.11.009.
[226]
陈雪华. 社区获得性肺炎初始治疗无反应原因和处理[J]. 中国实用内科杂志, 2014, 34( 1): 94- 96.
[227]
MenendezR, TorresA, ZalacainR, et al. Risk factors of treatment failure in community acquired pneumonia: implications for disease outcome[J]. Thorax, 2004, 59( 11): 960- 965. DOI: 10.1136/thx.2003.017756.
[228]
RamirezJA, AnzuetoAR. Changing needs of community-acquired pneumonia[J]. J Antimicrob Chemother, 2011, 66 Suppl 3: iii3- 9. DOI: 10.1093/jac/dkr094.
[229]
KarhuJ, Ala-KokkoTI, VuorinenT, et al. Lower respiratory tract virus findings in mechanically ventilated patients with severe community-acquired pneumonia[J]. Clin Infect Dis, 2014, 59( 1): 62- 70. DOI: 10.1093/cid/ciu237.
[230]
CaoB, LiXW, MaoY, et al. Clinical features of the initial cases of 2009 pandemic influenza A (H1N1) virus infection in China[J]. N Engl J Med, 2009, 361( 26): 2507- 2517. DOI: 10.1056/NEJMoa0906612.
[231]
YuH, FengZ, UyekiTM, et al. Risk factors for severe illness with 2009 pandemic influenza A (H1N1) virus infection in China[J]. Clin Infect Dis, 2011, 52( 4): 457- 465. DOI: 10.1093/cid/ciq144.
[232]
ZhangPJ, CaoB, LiXL, et al. Risk factors for adult death due to 2009 pandemic influenza A (H1N1) virus infection: a 2151 severe and critical cases analysis[J]. Chin Med J (Engl), 2013, 126( 12): 2222- 2228. DOI: 10.3760/cma.j.issn.0366-6999.20130871.
[233]
YangSQ, QuJX, WangC, et al. Influenza pneumonia among adolescents and adults: a concurrent comparison between influenza A (H1N1) pdm09 and A (H3N2) in the post-pandemic period[J]. Clin Respir J, 2014, 8( 2): 185- 191. DOI: 10.1111/crj.12056.
[234]
CaoB, LiXW, ShuYL, et al. Clinical and epidemiologic characteristics of 3 early cases of influenza A pandemic (H1N1) 2009 virus infection, People's Republic of China, 2009[J]. Emerg Infect Dis, 2009, 15( 9): 1418- 1422. DOI: 10.3201/eid1509.090794.
[235]
BaiL, GuL, CaoB, et al. Clinical features of pneumonia caused by 2009 influenza A(H1N1) virus in Beijing, China[J]. Chest, 2011, 139( 5): 1156- 1164. DOI: 10.1378/chest.10-1036.
[236]
GaoHN, LuHZ, CaoB, et al. Clinical findings in 111 cases of influenza A (H7N9) virus infection[J]. N Engl J Med, 2013, 368( 24): 2277- 2285. DOI: 10.1056/NEJMoa1305584.
[237]
KoopmansM, De JongMD. Avian influenza A H7N9 in Zhejiang, China[J]. Lancet, 2013, 381( 9881): 1882- 1883. DOI: 10.1016/S0140-6736(13)60936-8.
[238]
YuH, CowlingBJ, FengL, et al. Human infection with avian influenza A H7N9 virus: an assessment of clinical severity[J]. Lancet, 2013, 382( 9887): 138- 145. DOI: 10.1016/S0140-6736(13)61207-6.
[239]
ZhangW, WangL, HuW, et al. Epidemiologic characteristics of cases for influenza A(H7N9) virus infections in China[J]. Clin Infect Dis, 2013, 57( 4): 619- 620. DOI: 10.1093/cid/cit277.
[240]
ChenY, LiangW, YangS, et al. Human infections with the emerging avian influenza A H7N9 virus from wet market poultry: clinical analysis and characterisation of viral genome[J]. Lancet, 2013, 381( 9881): 1916- 1925. DOI: 10.1016/S0140-6736(13)60903-4.
[241]
CowlingBJ, JinL, LauEH, et al. Comparative epidemiology of human infections with avian influenza A H7N9 and H5N1 viruses in China: a population-based study of laboratory-confirmed cases[J]. Lancet, 2013, 382( 9887): 129- 137. DOI: 10.1016/S0140-6736(13)61171-X.
[242]
HeF, ZhangM, WangX, et al. Distinct risk profiles for human infections with the Influenza A(H7N9) virus among rural and urban residents: Zhejiang Province, China, 2013[J]. PLoS One, 2014, 9( 5): e95015. DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0095015.
[243]
ZhangJ, ZhaoY, ChenY. Laboratory findings in patients with avian-origin influenza A (H7N9) virus infections[J]. J Med Virol, 2014, 86( 5): 895- 898. DOI: 10.1002/jmv.23780.
[244]
JiH, GuQ, ChenLL, et al. Epidemiological and clinical characteristics and risk factors for death of patients with avian influenza A H7N9 virus infection from Jiangsu Province, Eastern China[J]. PLoS One, 2014, 9( 3): e89581. DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0142287.
[245]
LiQ, ZhouL, ZhouM, et al. Epidemiology of human infections with avian influenza A(H7N9) virus in China[J]. N Engl J Med, 2014, 370( 6): 520- 532. DOI: 10.1056/NEJMoa1304617.
[246]
KeY, WangY, LiuS, et al. High severity and fatality of human infections with avian influenza A(H7N9) infection in China[J]. Clin Infect Dis, 2013, 57( 10): 1506- 1507. DOI: 10.1093/cid/cit371.
[247]
HuY, LuS, SongZ, et al. Association between adverse clinical outcome in human disease caused by novel influenza A H7N9 virus and sustained viral shedding and emergence of antiviral resistance[J]. Lancet, 2013, 381( 9885): 2273- 2279. DOI: 10.1016/S0140-6736(13)61125-3.
[248]
WangC, YuH, HorbyPW, et al. Comparison of patients hospitalized with influenza A subtypes H7N9, H5N1, and 2009 pandemic H1N1[J]. Clin Infect Dis, 2014, 58( 8): 1095- 1103. DOI: 10.1093/cid/ciu053.
[249]
IpDK, LiaoQ, WuP, et al. Detection of mild to moderate influenza A/H7N9 infection by China's national sentinel surveillance system for influenza-like illness: case series[J]. BMJ, 2013, 346: f3693. DOI: 10.1136/bmj.f3693.
[250]
TangX, HeH, SunB, et al. ARDS associated with pneumonia caused by avian influenza A H7N9 virus treated with extracorporeal membrane oxygenation[J]. Clin Respir J, 2015, 9( 3): 380- 384. DOI: 10.1111/crj.12140.
[251]
GaoR, CaoB, HuY, et al. Human infection with a novel avian-origin influenza A (H7N9) virus[J]. N Engl J Med, 2013, 368( 20): 1888- 1897. DOI: 10.1056/NEJMoa1304459.
[252]
ChenH, YuanH, GaoR, et al. Clinical and epidemiological characteristics of a fatal case of avian influenza A H10N8 virus infection: a descriptive study[J]. Lancet, 2014, 383( 9918): 714- 721. DOI: 10.1016/S0140-6736(14)60111-2.
[253]
WanJ, ZhangJ, TaoW, et al. A report of first fatal case of H10N8 avian influenza virus pneumonia in the world[J]. Zhonghua Wei Zhong Bing Ji Jiu Yi Xue, 2014, 26( 2): 120- 122. DOI: 10.3760/cma.j.issn.2095-4352.2014.02.013.
[254]
YuH, LiaoQ, YuanY, et al. Effectiveness of oseltamivir on disease progression and viral RNA shedding in patients with mild pandemic 2009 influenza A H1N1: opportunistic retrospective study of medical charts in China[J]. BMJ, 2010, 341: c4779. DOI: 10.1136/bmj.c4779.
[255]
中华人民共和国国家卫生和计划生育委员会. 人感染H7N9禽流感诊疗方案(2014年版)[J]. 中华临床感染病杂志, 2014, 7( 1): 1- 3. DOI: 10.3760/cma.j.issn.1674-2397.2014.01.001.
[256]
JeffersonT, JonesM, DoshiP, et al. Oseltamivir for influenza in adults and children: systematic review of clinical study reports and summary of regulatory comments[J]. BMJ, 2014, 348: g2545. DOI: 10.1136/bmj.g2545.
[257]
HeneghanCJ, OnakpoyaI, ThompsonM, et al. Zanamivir for influenza in adults and children: systematic review of clinical study reports and summary of regulatory comments[J]. BMJ, 2014, 348: g2547. DOI: 10.1136/bmj.g2547.
[258]
KohnoS, YenMY, CheongHJ, et al. Phase Ⅲ randomized, double-blind study comparing single-dose intravenous peramivir with oral oseltamivir in patients with seasonal influenza virus infection[J]. Antimicrob Agents Chemother, 2011, 55( 11): 5267- 5276. DOI: 10.1128/AAC.00360-11.
[259]
CaoB, HuangGH, PuZH, et al. Emergence of community-acquired adenovirus type 55 as a cause of community-onset pneumonia[J]. Chest, 2014, 145( 1): 79- 86.
[260]
GuL, LiuZ, LiX, et al. Severe community-acquired pneumonia caused by adenovirus type 11 in immunocompetent adults in Beijing[J]. J Clin Virol, 2012, 54( 4): 295- 301. DOI: 10.1016/j.jcv.2012.04.018.
[261]
ZhuZ, ZhangY, XuS, et al. Outbreak of acute respiratory disease in China caused by B2 species of adenovirus type 11[J]. J Clin Microbiol, 2009, 47( 3): 697- 703. DOI: 10.1128/JCM.01769-08.
[262]
SunB, HeH, WangZ, et al. Emergent severe acute respiratory distress syndrome caused by adenovirus type 55 in immunocompetent adults in 2013: a prospective observational study[J]. Crit Care, 2014, 18( 4): 456. DOI: 10.1186/s13054-014-0456-6.
[263]
KimSJ, KimK, ParkSB, et al. Outcomes of early administration of cidofovir in non-immunocompromised patients with severe adenovirus pneumonia[J]. PLoS One, 2015, 10( 4): e0122642. DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0122642.
[264]
WalshEE. Respiratory syncytial virus infection in adults[J]. Semin Respir Crit Care Med, 2011, 32( 4): 423- 432. DOI: 10.1055/s-0031-1283282.
[265]
ChuHY, EnglundJA. Respiratory syncytial virus disease: prevention and treatment[J]. Curr Top Microbiol Immunol, 2013, 372: 235- 258. DOI: 10.1007/978-3-642-38919-1_12.
[266]
MayerJL, LehnersN, EgererG, et al. CT-morphological characterization of respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) pneumonia in immune-compromised adults[J]. Rofo, 2014, 186( 7): 686- 692. DOI: Rofo, 2014, 186( 7): 686- 692.
[267]
VentreK, RandolphAG. Ribavirin for respiratory syncytial virus infection of the lower respiratory tract in infants and young children[J]. Cochrane Database Syst Rev, 2007, ( 1): CD000181. DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD000181.pub3.
[268]
ZumlaA, HuiDS, PerlmanS. Middle East respiratory syndrome[J]. Lancet, 2015: 386( 9997): 9995- 1007. DOI: 10.1016/S0140-6736(15)60454-8.
[269]
AssiriA, Al-TawfiqJA, Al-RabeeahAA, et al. Epidemiological, demographic, and clinical characteristics of 47 cases of Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus disease from Saudi Arabia: a descriptive study[J]. Lancet Infect Dis, 2013, 13( 9): 752- 761. DOI: 10.1016/S1473-3099(13)70204-4.
[270]
DasKM, LeeEY, EnaniMA, et al. CT correlation with outcomes in 15 patients with acute Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus[J]. AJR Am J Roentgenol, 2015, 204( 4): 736- 742. DOI: 10.2214/AJR.14.13671.
[271]
ShalhoubS, FarahatF, Al-JiffriA, et al. IFN-alpha2a or IFN-beta1a in combination with ribavirin to treat Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus pneumonia: a retrospective study[J]. J Antimicrob Chemother, 2015, 70( 7): 2129- 2132. DOI: 10.1093/jac/dkv085.
[272]
EngelMF, Van ManenL, HoepelmanAI, et al. Diagnostic, therapeutic and economic consequences of a positive urinary antigen test for Legionella spp. in patients admitted with community-acquired pneumonia: a 7-year retrospective evaluation[J]. J Clin Pathol, 2013, 66( 9): 797- 802. DOI: 10.1136/jclinpath-2012-201209.
[273]
HilbiH, JarraudS, HartlandE, et al. Update on Legionnaires' disease: pathogenesis, epidemiology, detection and control[J]. Mol Microbiol, 2010, 76( 1): 1- 11. DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2958.2010.07086.x.
[274]
MarstonBJ, LipmanHB, BreimanRF. Surveillance for Legionnaires' disease. Risk factors for morbidity and mortality[J]. Arch Intern Med, 1994, 154( 21): 2417- 2422. DOI: 10.1001/archinte.154.21.2417.
[275]
PhinN, Parry-FordF, HarrisonT, et al. Epidemiology and clinical management of Legionnaires' disease[J]. Lancet Infect Dis, 2014, 14( 10): 1011- 1021. DOI: 10.1016/S1473-3099(14)70713-3.
[276]
DiederenBM. Legionella spp. and Legionnaires' disease[J]. J Infect, 2008, 56( 1): 1- 12. DOI: 10.1016/j.jinf.2007.09.010.
[277]
LanternierF, TubachF, RavaudP, et al. Incidence and risk factors of Legionella pneumophila pneumonia during anti-tumor necrosis factor therapy: a prospective French study[J]. Chest, 2013, 144( 3): 990- 998. DOI: 10.1378/chest.12-2820.
[278]
Garcia-VidalC, CarratalaJ. Current clinical management of Legionnaires' disease[J]. Expert Rev Anti Infect Ther, 2006, 4( 6): 995- 1004. DOI: 10.1586/14787210.4.6.995.
[279]
MorelliN, BattagliaE, LattuadaP. Brainstem involvement in Legionnaires' disease[J]. Infection, 2006, 34( 1): 49- 52. DOI: 10.1007/s15010-006-4131-y.
[280]
FiumefreddoR, ZaborskyR, HaeuptleJ, et al. Clinical predictors for Legionella in patients presenting with community-acquired pneumonia to the emergency department[J]. BMC Pulm Med, 2009, 9: 4. DOI: 10.1186/1471-2466-9-4.
[281]
CunhaBA. Severe Legionella pneumonia: rapid presumptive clinical diagnosis with Winthrop-University Hospital's weighted point score system (modified)[J]. Heart Lung, 2008, 37( 4): 311- 320. DOI: 10.1016/j.hrtlng.2007.12.003.
[282]
DaumasA, El-MekaouiF, BatailleS, et al. Acute tubulointerstitial nephritis complicating Legionnaires' disease: a case report[J]. J Med Case Rep, 2012, 6: 100. DOI: 10.1186/1752-1947-6-100.
[283]
Fernandez-SabeN, RosonB, CarratalaJ, et al. Clinical diagnosis of Legionella pneumonia revisited: evaluation of the Community-Based Pneumonia Incidence Study Group scoring system[J]. Clin Infect Dis, 2003, 37( 4): 483- 489. DOI: 10.1086/376627.
[284]
YagyuH, NakamuraH, TsuchidaF, et al. Chest CT findings and clinical features in mild Legionella pneumonia[J]. Intern Med, 2003, 42( 6): 477- 482. DOI: 10.2169/internalmedicine.42.477.
[285]
SakaiF, TokudaH, GotoH, et al. Computed tomographic features of Legionella pneumophila pneumonia in 38 cases[J]. J Comput Assist Tomogr, 2007, 31( 1): 125- 131. DOI: 10.1097/01.rct.0000233129.06056.65.
[286]
TanMJ, TanJS, HamorRH, et al. The radiologic manifestations of Legionnaire's disease. The Ohio Community-Based Pneumonia Incidence Study Group[J]. Chest, 2000, 117( 2): 398- 403. DOI: 10.1378/chest.117.2.398.
[287]
WoodheadM, BlasiF, EwigS, et al. Guidelines for the management of adult lower respiratory tract infections[J]. Eur Respir J, 2005, 26( 6): 1138- 1180. DOI: 10.1183/09031936.05.00055705.
[288]
AmsdenGW. Treatment of Legionnaires' disease[J]. Drugs, 2005, 65( 5): 605- 614. DOI: 10.2165/00003495-200565050-00003.
[289]
JacobsonKL, MiceliMH, TarrandJJ, et al. Legionella pneumonia in cancer patients[J]. Medicine (Baltimore), 2008, 87( 3): 152- 159. DOI: 10.1097/MD.0b013e3181779b53.
[290]
NakamuraS, YanagiharaK, IzumikawaK, et al. The clinical efficacy of fluoroquinolone and macrolide combination therapy compared with single-agent therapy against community-acquired pneumonia caused by Legionella pneumophila[J]. J Infect, 2009, 59( 3): 222- 224. DOI: 10.1016/j.jinf.2009.06.008.
[291]
ZhaoC, LiuY, ZhaoM, et al. Characterization of community acquired Staphylococcus aureus associated with skin and soft tissue infection in Beijing: high prevalence of PVL+ ST398[J]. PLoS One, 2012, 7( 6): e38577. DOI: 10.1007/s00204-012-1002-4.
[292]
WuCL, KuSC, YangKY, et al. Antimicrobial drug-resistant microbes associated with hospitalized community-acquired and healthcare-associated pneumonia: a multi-center study in Taiwan[J]. J Formos Med Assoc, 2013, 112( 1): 31- 40. DOI: 10.1016/j.jfma.2011.09.028.
[293]
UmekiK, TokimatsuI, YasudaC, et al. Clinical features of healthcare-associated pneumonia (HCAP) in a Japanese community hospital: comparisons among nursing home-acquired pneumonia (NHAP), HCAP other than NHAP, and community-acquired pneumonia[J]. Respirology, 2011, 16( 5): 856- 861. DOI: 10.1111/j.1440-1843.2011.01983.x.
[294]
KollefMH, ShorrA, TabakYP, et al. Epidemiology and outcomes of health-care-associated pneumonia: results from a large US database of culture-positive pneumonia[J]. Chest, 2005, 128( 6): 3854- 3862. DOI: 10.1378/chest.128.6.3854.
[295]
VardakasKZ, MatthaiouDK, FalagasME. Incidence, characteristics and outcomes of patients with severe community acquired-MRSA pneumonia[J]. Eur Respir J, 2009, 34( 5): 1148- 1158. DOI: 10.1183/09031936.00041009.
[296]
李洪涛,张天托,黄静,等. 社区获得性耐甲氧西林金黄色葡萄球菌肺炎死亡相关危险因素分析[J]. 中国危重病急救医学, 2010, 22( 8): 459- 464. DOI: 10.3760/cma.j.issn.1003-0603.2010.08.004.
[297]
GilletY, IssartelB, VanhemsP, et al. Association between Staphylococcus aureus strains carrying gene for Panton-Valentine leukocidin and highly lethal necrotising pneumonia in young immunocompetent patients[J]. Lancet, 2002, 359( 9308): 753- 759. DOI: 10.1016/S0140-6736(02)07877-7.
[298]
NguyenET, KanneJP, HoangLM, et al. Community-acquired methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus pneumonia: radiographic and computed tomography findings[J]. J Thorac Imaging, 2008, 23( 1): 13- 19. DOI: 10.1097/RTI.0b013e318149e698.
[299]
WunderinkRG. How important is methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus as a cause of community-acquired pneumonia and what is best antimicrobial therapy?[J]. Infect Dis Clin North Am, 2013, 27( 1): 177- 188. DOI: 10.1016/j.idc.2012.11.006.
[300]
StupkaJE, MortensenEM, AnzuetoA, et al. Community-acquired pneumonia in elderly patients[J]. Aging health, 2009, 5( 6): 763- 774. DOI: 10.2217/ahe.09.74.
[301]
ChongCP, StreetPR. Pneumonia in the elderly: a review of the epidemiology, pathogenesis, microbiology, and clinical features[J]. South Med J, 2008, 101( 11): 1141- 1145. DOI: 10.1097/SMJ.0b013e318181d5b5.
[302]
MaruyamaT, GabazzaEC, MorserJ, et al. Community-acquired pneumonia and nursing home-acquired pneumonia in the very elderly patients[J]. Respir Med, 2010, 104( 4): 584- 592. DOI: 10.1016/j.rmed.2009.12.008.
[303]
FungHB, Monteagudo-ChuMO. Community-acquired pneumonia in the elderly[J]. Am J Geriatr Pharmacother, 2010, 8( 1): 47- 62. DOI: 10.1016/j.amjopharm.2010.01.003.
[304]
Committee for the Japanese Respiratory Society Guidelines for the Management of Respiratory I. Guidelines for the management of community acquired pneumonia in adults, revised edition[J]. Respirology, 2006, 11( Suppl 3): S79- 133. DOI: 10.1111/j.1440-1843.2006.00937_1.x.
[305]
CillonizC, PolverinoE, EwigS, et al. Impact of age and comorbidity on cause and outcome in community-acquired pneumonia[J]. Chest, 2013, 144( 3): 999- 1007. DOI: 10.1378/chest.13-0062.
[306]
HuangHH, ZhangYY, XiuQY, et al. Community-acquired pneumonia in Shanghai, China: microbial etiology and implications for empirical therapy in a prospective study of 389 patients[J]. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis, 2006, 25( 6): 369- 374. DOI: 10.1007/s10096-006-0146-7.
[307]
Gonzalez-CastilloJ, Martin-SanchezFJ, LlinaresP, et al. Guidelines for the management of community-acquired pneumonia in the elderly patient[J]. Rev Esp Quimioter, 2014, 27( 1): 69- 86.
[308]
FaverioP, AlibertiS, BellelliG, et al. The management of community-acquired pneumonia in the elderly[J]. Eur J Intern Med, 2014, 25( 4): 312- 319. DOI: 10.1016/j.ejim.2013.12.001.
[309]
AlibertiS, AmirA, PeyraniP, et al. Incidence, etiology, timing, and risk factors for clinical failure in hospitalized patients with community-acquired pneumonia[J]. Chest, 2008, 134( 5): 955- 962. DOI: 10.1378/chest.08-0334.
[310]
MarikPE. Aspiration pneumonitis and aspiration pneumonia[J]. N Engl J Med, 2001, 344( 9): 665- 671. DOI: 10.1056/NEJM200103013440908.
[311]
KwongJC, HowdenBP, CharlesPG. New aspirations: the debate on aspiration pneumonia treatment guidelines[J]. Med J Aust, 2011, 195( 7): 380- 381. DOI: 10.5694/mja11.10298.
[312]
KomiyaK, IshiiH, KadotaJ. Healthcare-associated Pneumonia and Aspiration Pneumonia[J]. Aging Dis, 2015, 6( 1): 27- 37. DOI: 10.14336/AD.2014.0127.
[313]
王晓华,高燕飞,王秋燕,等. 老年患者发生吸入性肺炎的相关因素分析与对策[J]. 中华医院感染学杂志, 2014, 24( 5): 1161-1162,1165. DOI: 10.11816/cn.ni.2014-131697.
[314]
Van Der Maarel-WierinkCD, VanobbergenJN, BronkhorstEM, et al. Meta-analysis of dysphagia and aspiration pneumonia in frail elders[J]. J Dent Res, 2011, 90( 12): 1398- 1404. DOI: 10.1177/0022034511422909.
[315]
PaceCC, McculloughGH. The association between oral microorgansims and aspiration pneumonia in the institutionalized elderly: review and recommendations[J]. Dysphagia, 2010, 25( 4): 307- 322. DOI: 10.1007/s00455-010-9298-9.
[316]
DibardinoDM, WunderinkRG. Aspiration pneumonia: a review of modern trends[J]. J Crit Care, 2015, 30( 1): 40- 48. DOI: 10.1016/j.jcrc.2014.07.011.
[317]
汪静,程真顺. 老年吸入性肺炎临床危险因素及影像学分析[J]. 临床内科杂志, 2013, 30( 4): 270- 272. DOI: 10.3969/j.issn.1001-9057.2013.04.018.
[318]
FinegoldSM. Aspiration pneumonia[J]. Rev Infect Dis, 1991, 13 Suppl 9: S737- 742. DOI: 10.1093/clinids/13.Supplement_9.S737.
[319]
KomiyaK, IshiiH, UmekiK, et al. Computed tomography findings of aspiration pneumonia in 53 patients[J]. Geriatr Gerontol Int, 2013, 13( 3): 580- 585. DOI: 10.1111/j.1447-0594.2012.00940.x.
[320]
TokuyasuH, HaradaT, WatanabeE, et al. Effectiveness of meropenem for the treatment of aspiration pneumonia in elderly patients[J]. Intern Med, 2009, 48( 3): 129- 135. DOI: 10.2169/internalmedicine.48.1308.
[321]
MarikPE. Pulmonary aspiration syndromes[J]. Curr Opin Pulm Med, 2011, 17( 3): 148- 154. DOI: 10.1097/MCP.0b013e32834397d6.
[322]
MarikPE, KaplanD. Aspiration pneumonia and dysphagia in the elderly[J]. Chest, 2003, 124( 1): 328- 336. DOI: 10.1378/chest.124.1.328.
[323]
范志强,瞿介明,朱惠莉. 吸入性肺炎的研究进展[J]. 中国呼吸与危重监护杂志, 2010, 9( 2): 209- 212. DOI: 10.3969/j.issn.1671-6205.2010.02.027
[324]
TorresA, PeetermansWE, ViegiG, et al. Risk factors for community-acquired pneumonia in adults in Europe: a literature review[J]. Thorax, 2013, 68( 11): 1057- 1065. DOI: 10.1136/thoraxjnl-2013-204282.
[325]
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (Cdc). Respiratory hygiene/cough etiquette in health-care settings[EB/OL]. ( 2012-02-27)[ 2015-5-23]. http://www.cdc.gov/flu/professionals/infectioncontrol/resphygiene.htm.
[326]
MoberleyS, HoldenJ, TathamDP, et al. Vaccines for preventing pneumococcal infection in adults[J]. Cochrane Database Syst Rev, 2013, 1: CD000422. DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD000422.pub3.
[327]
BridgesCB, Coyne-BeasleyT. Advisory committee on immunization practices.Advisory committee on immunization practices recommended immunization schedule for adults aged 19 years or older: United States, 2014[J]. Ann Intern Med, 2014, 160( 3): 190- 199. DOI: 10.7326/M13-2826.
[328]
王启,张菲菲,赵春江,等. 2010—2011年中国肺炎链球菌耐药性和血清型研究[J]. 中华结核和呼吸杂志, 2013, 36( 2): 106- 112. DOI: 10.3760/cma.j.issn.1001-0939.2013.02.009.
[329]
刘春林,赵春江,刘昱东,等. 侵袭性肺炎链球菌148株血清型、耐药性及分子分型研究[J]. 中华医学杂志, 2010, 90( 22): 1565- 1570. DOI: 10.3760/cma.j.issn.0376-2491.2010.22.014.
[330]
BontenMJ, HuijtsSM, BolkenbaasM, et al. Polysaccharide conjugate vaccine against pneumococcal pneumonia in adults[J]. N Engl J Med, 2015, 372( 12): 1114- 1125. DOI: 10.1056/NEJMoa1408544.
[331]
TomczykS, BennettNM, StoeckerC, et al. Use of 13-valent pneumococcal conjugate vaccine and 23-valent pneumococcal polysaccharide vaccine among adults aged ≥ 65 years: recommendations of the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP)[J]. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep, 2014, 63( 37): 822- 825.
[332]
WilsonKC, SchunemannHJ. An appraisal of the evidence underlying performance measures for community-acquired pneumonia[J]. Am J Respir Crit Care Med, 2011, 183( 11): 1454- 1462. DOI: 10.1164/rccm.201009-1451PP.
[333]
JeffersonT, Di PietrantonjC, RivettiA, et al. Vaccines for preventing influenza in healthy adults[J]. Cochrane Database Syst Rev, 2014, 3: CD001269. DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD001269.
[334]
FerdinandsJM, GargiulloP, HaberM, et al. Inactivated influenza vaccines for prevention of community-acquired pneumonia: the limits of using nonspecific outcomes in vaccine effectiveness studies[J]. Epidemiology, 2013, 24( 4): 530- 537. DOI: 10.1097/EDE.0b013e3182953065.
[335]
《中国季节性流感疫苗应用技术指南(2014-2015)》更新[EB/OL].( 2015-9-23)[ 2015-11-23]. http://www.chinacdc.cn/jkzt/crb/lxxgm/ymjz/201509/W020150923321340453594.pdf.
[336]
MahamatA, DauresJP, De WzieresB. Additive preventive effect of influenza and pneumococcal vaccines in the elderly: results of a large cohort study[J]. Hum Vaccin Immunother, 2013, 9( 1): 128- 135. DOI: 10.4161/hv.22550.
X
选择其他平台 >>
分享到